A Theme Of Racism In The Kite Runner - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 438 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/06/14 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: The Kite Runner Essay Did you like this example? Racism is the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics. Racial separatism is the belief, most of the time based on racism, that different races should remain segregated and apart from one another. Racism has existed throughout human history. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Theme Of Racism In The Kite Runner" essay for you Create order It means that the hatred of one person by another or the belief that another person is less than human because of skin color, language, customs, place of birth or another factor that supposedly reveals the basic nature of that person. It has influence wars, slavery, the formation of nation and legal codes. The Amir figure who acts as the main narrator in the story as well as the central figure attempts to disguise repression with a character from the low-ranking social strata of Hazara named Hassan. Amir is a Pashtun boy who lives in luxury and facilities because his father is one of the richest men in their district to live, Wazir Akhbar Khan in Kabul. In his daily life, Amir was always accompanied and served by the son of his servant Ali named Hassan. However, Hassan tried hard to please Amir. In the deep down, Amir never considered Hassan as a friend. Hassan was only a servant for him. The curious thing was, I never thought of Hassan and me as friends either or in another quote: But he’s not my friend! I almost blurted. Its my servant! Had I really thought that? Of course I have no. I treated Hassan well, just like a friend, better even, more like a brother. But if so, then why, when Babas friends came to visit with their kids, did I never include Hassan in our games? Why did I play with Hassan only when no one else was around? The quotation above shows that Amir could never regard Hassan as equal to himself. There will always be differences and distances that Amir and society create. In this novel there is one character that hold grudges and be racial to Hassan, He is Assef. He really hated to Hassan because he throw Assef with slingshot and because Hassan is Hazara people. Here, there is one incident that interested my heart. The incident happened when Hassan chased after Kite’s opponent that broke up. On the road, he met Assef and his friends. Assef asked the kite for himself but Hassan didn’t give it, then Assef rape him in there. From the story above we can conclude that racism asserts that blood is a marker of ethnic-national identity.

What Does Immortality Mean - 822 Words

Sherianna Johnson Dr. Norman J. Fischer Introduction to Philosophy March 2nd, 2017 Can one be immortal? Is it possible to be dead before one is alive? What does immortality mean? These are questions that some people do not think about or discuss on a daily basis. There is much to be learned about one’s immorality. Socrates talks about how the soul of the dead comes from people who are still alive, and we gain ours from the dead. He utilizes this as an inspiration for his first argument. All objects once upon a time came from their opposite states; something larger now should have been tiny before. The two processes for these opposite are increase and decrease . On the off chance that the two opposite procedures did not balance each†¦show more content†¦When people are born into this world, so is a new soul. Where does the soul come from? Socrates verbalizes that even postmortem, the soul subsists and is able to cerebrate. He believed that as bodies decease, the soul is continually reborn in subsequent bodies. Not true for relative opposite, nothing can be both either everything has to be one or the other. Life and death are not conflicting alternate opposites, but they are contrary opposites. Plato appears to be right in setting up the necessary presence of opposites when considering adjectives, e.g. slow and fast, hot and cold, living and dying etc. Here, without a doubt restricting descriptors more often than not oblige one to happen before the other. For a question be moving quicker at a specific time, it more likely than not, been moving slower initial; a protest more likely than not, been littler before it got to be distinctly greater; been dozing before it got to be distinctly wakeful, and so forth. Thus, it is conceivable to attribute a contradictory term to most, if not all, adjectives; it is also conceivable to deem one adjective necessarily happening before another. By definition adjectives qualify nouns[5], e.g. x is fast, y is cold, z is dead, etc., which is to say adjectives describe properties of nouns. In this manner, while considering modifiers in a sentence, if x is moving quickly, y feels frosty, z is dead,Show MoreRelatedHappiness State of Mind1180 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction At first glance, happiness is a state of mind that many, if not all people aspire to achieve in their lifetime. What exactly is that state of mind is up for debate among the east and the west, and varies between different cultures, traditions, and religions. In the west, happiness is mostly associated with success, wealth, fame and power. In the east, happiness can be viewed as freedom from mundane occurrences such as the occupation of western powers from within a country, the end ofRead MorePlatos Symposium : The Nature Of Love1592 Words   |  7 Pagesbe the driving force towards immortality. Aristophanes perpetuates this idea through his allegorical description of human’s original nature, and the component of the driving force of love within that nature. The underlying goal of this force of love is immortality, though he does not directly articulate it in his speech. It is with the emergence of Socrates’ ideas that we are equipped with sufficient evidence reinforcin g Aristophanes’ story to be one in which immortality is the end goal, and that weRead MoreDiscussion of D.Z. Phillips Conception of Immortality Essay1087 Words   |  5 PagesDiscussion of D.Z. Phillips Conception of Immortality In his book Death and Immortality, D Z Phillips starts by asking the question: does belief in immortality rest on a mistake? The first two chapters are negative in the sense that they examine traditional philosophical, as well as common sense, conceptions of what immortality means. Phillips argues that philosophical analyses centred on the notion of immortality have generally been constructed around certain essentialRead MorePlato: Immortality of the Soul1505 Words   |  7 PagesPHAEDO: IMMORTALITY OF SOUL In the dialogue Phaedo Plato discusses the immortality of the soul. He presents four different arguments to prove the fact that although the body of the human perishes after death; the soul still exists and remains eternal. Firstly, he explains the Argument from Opposites that is about the forms and their existence in opposite forms. His second argument is Theory of Recollection which assumes that each and every information that one has in his/her mind is related toRead MoreThe Epic of Gilgamesh Essay1139 Words   |  5 Pagesthe epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh embarks upon a quest seeking immortality as a means to peace, meaning, and joy in life. He tries to reach it in many different ways, each as unsuccessful as its predecessor. The two main types of immortality are physical and through the actions or achievements of ones life. Gilgamesh tries first through his actions, but then undergoes a transformation which leads him to next attempt physical immortality. He eventually comes bac k to the point at which he began; howeverRead MoreThe True Meaning Of Life1370 Words   |  6 Pageswill no longer exist – the worst thing that could perhaps happen to us, our will. This is the true meaning of what is means to be mortal. So, it is fully logical to see why some would want to live forever, to become immortal. For instance, on one side of a spectrum, there is the non-human animals, which possess the same will as humans but do not possess the knowledge of death. This means, that since they are not aware of death, they are then immortal. Another example, on the other side of the spectrumRead MoreOryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood1014 Words   |  4 Pagesdebatable issue in our current society. In the science fiction novel Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood, the author as put by Jayne Glover in critical analysis â€Å"Human/Nature: Ecological Philosophy in Margaret Atwood’s Oryx and Crake†, Atwood â€Å"speculates on what the near future may be like considering the realities of contemporary environmental, social and political issues† (Glover 50). Atwood’s novel specifically focuses on the question: when will the line be drawn? She emphasizes dystopian ideals by paintingRead MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And The Book Of Job Essay1191 Words   |  5 Pages Human problems does not change throughout history but instead get told in different forms. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Book of Job are a quest for immortality and deal with the realization that death is final and will come for everyone. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Book of Job have a similar main theme of immortality and context, but the Book of Job has a more optimistic and friendly world view. These two stories are very similar in their context because they occur close together in historyRead MoreSymbolism in Emily Dickinson’s Poetry918 Words   |  4 Pagesbe able to see Dickinson’s poems, she uses symbolism of immortality, death, sorrow and personification throughout the three poems that I will be discussing in the following paragraphs. She describes each meaning to only symbolize one thing and without reading the whole poem one would not be able to notice this. But, I will attempt to persuade and explain why I feel that in Dickinson’s poems 465, 585 and 712 has a slight focus on immortality, but in the same instance if you would not have read theRead MoreVictory over Death in Wordsworth ¡Ã‚ ¯S  ¡Ã‚ °Intimations of Immortality Ode ¡Ã‚ ±1670 Words   |  7 PagesThe concept of death most frequently conveys the dark and mysterious affect. 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David Foster Wallace’s essay Consider the Lobster Example For Students

David Foster Wallace’s essay Consider the Lobster The gluttonous lords of the land capture those who are unable to defend themselves, boil the captives alive, and then feast on their flesh. Could this be the plot of some new summer blockbuster? It could be, in fact, but for now we will focus on how this depiction of events compares to David Foster Wallace’s essay, â€Å"Consider the Lobster,† which starts as a review of the Maine Lobster Festival, but soon morphs into an indictment of not only the conventions of lobster preparation, but also the entire idea of having an animal killed for one’s own consumption. Wallace shows great skill in establishing ethos. In the essay, he succeeds in snaring a receptive audience by laying out a well-baited trap for an audience who was looking for something else altogether, but he ultimately fails to keep hold of much of his catch. The piece in question was written for and published in Gourmet magazine. Presumably, the readers of that publication have already made up their minds about what they like to eat. A philosophical treatise on animal rights is probably not high on their reading list. In order to suck these readers in, Wallace hides his disdain for the subject matter inside cynical and ironic language. In his opening sentence, Wallace refers to the Maine Lobster Festival as â€Å"enormous, pungent, and extremely well-marketed† (252). This is an effective turn of phrase in that each reader assigns his or her own values to those adjectives. While an optimist sees in his mind’s eye a large, aromatic party filled with revelers from all over the continent, a pessimist pictures a crowded, stinky mess which has sold out for the money. Wallace draws them both in with his careful use of language. The words â€Å"optimist† and â€Å"pessimist† need further exploration. In the above example, they represent the two aspects of Wallace’s audience. Unfortunately, the words themselves are not a perfect fit for the duality of the readership. For our purposes, we will say that most of the Gourmet readers are probably in the â€Å"optimist† crowd, but they are also the omnivores typical of the Standard American Diet: they will eat anything so long as it is expertly prepared and tasty. The â€Å"pessimists† are the segment of Wallace’s readership who are actually most receptive to his arguments. The reasons behind any particular reader’s membership in this group are numerous: the reader may be a vegetarian, or opposed to the typical method of lobster preparation, or may just be opposed to commercial fishing and/or commercialized food festivals. The specific reasons are not important; what is important is that Wallace does not have to figh t to keep this audience: he just has to keep from alienating them. It is the optimists for whom he must fight. Wallace must tread a careful path in the opening four pages of his article. In this stage, if his language is too negative, he will lose the optimist majority, but if he caters to that portion of his audience too heavily, he will lose those whom he is most likely to reach. In the second paragraph, he continues to use neutral language and allow the readers to bring their own opinions into the article. He combines negative and positive language in a single sentence when he describes the Maine Lobster Festival as â€Å"less an intersection of industries than a deliberate collision, joyful and lucrative and loud† (252). Our optimistic readers gloss over the collision and focus on the joy, profits, and revelry. The pessimists find plenty of words to latch onto: â€Å"collision† implies a negative event, what is â€Å"loud† is often annoying, and even the mention of how profitable the event is will again fill our pessimists with feelings of capitalist exploitation. .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .postImageUrl , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:hover , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:visited , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:active { border:0!important; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:active , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Martha Washington EssayFarther along, Wallace has spent some time comparing lobsters to various insects and spiders an referred to them as â€Å"giant sea insects† (254). He then follows this up by saying that â€Å"they aregood eating. Or so we think now† (254). He follows this up with a discussion of how the lobster was originally a cheap food for the poor and that there were even laws to protect prisoners from being fed lobster too often. Again, importantly, he refrains from passing judgment on either the old perspective or the new. It is left up to the reader to decide if the people of old were silly for failing to properly value lobster meat or if the mo dern lobster eaters are silly for not realizing that they are eating such a common food. It is shortly after this point that the essay begins to change in tone. Having hopefully won the trust of the optimists, or at least not scared them away yet, Wallace slowly moves into a more negative approach. He does this cautiously. First he makes an assumption about the typical Gourmet reader: that he or she does not want to sit with the common folk and simply eat food. On the fourth, fifth and sixth pages of his essay, he launches a two-pronged attack on the Maine Lobster Festival. In the main text, he vividly describes the sights and smells of the overcrowded Main Eating Tent, where â€Å"it’s hot, and†¦the smells†¦are strong and only partly food-related† (255). Also: â€Å"The suppers come in Styrofoam trays†¦and the utensils are plastic† (255). Then he describes the Festival as â€Å"a midlevel county fair† (256). In his massive footnote spread across two pages, he attacks the practice of being, as he calls it, â€Å"a mass touristà ¢â‚¬  (257). Herein he gives the reader an honest view of his opinion on the subject of his piece, and it is not a favorable one. He is striving to win over the â€Å"optimist† Gourmet audience by showing them that there are better ways to enjoy lobster than the Maine Lobster Fest, and he does it very successfully by making accurate assumptions about their tastes. Shortly after his victory at bringing the reluctant part of audience to his side, however, he tries to build upon that by launching into a philosophical discussion which undermines the trust he has won. His question: â€Å"Is it all right to boil a sentient creature alive just for our gustatory pleasure?† (259). Here his precise use of the word â€Å"sentient† feels out of place. He has given up his careful word usage in favor of an easily misinterpreted one which is often associated with intelligent life. Within a paragraph, he is bringing up PETA, whom he later describes as â€Å"fanatics† in the footnote on page 263. Unfortunately for his credibility, he does not distance himself from the rhetoric of the animal rights movement early enough. The typical American eater has a lifetime of meat consumption in his or her past and needs to be eased into any discussion that implies there might be a moral price for all those dead animals. It’s arguable that even a 19-page article does not have the time and space to establish enough ethos to win over a large amount of the audience. It is important to note that Wallace acknowledges this fact in his piece, saying â€Å"it appears to me unlikely that many readers of Gourmet wish to think hard about†¦the morality of their eating habits† (262) Wallace knows that he is fishing in unfriendly waters. He knows his harvest will not be nearly as impressive as the lobstermen he lambasts. Some would say this concession to reality shows that he has lowered (or realistic) expectations, and therefore he should be excused if his essay only sways a few members of his audience. I disagree: by offering his readership the â€Å"out† of peer pressure, he gives them an easy, popular excuse to be unconcerned with the lobster. This moment of weakness allows the readers to break free of the language net he has expertly woven. They hasten back to their old schools of thought, safe amongst the multitude of omnivores. .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .postImageUrl , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:hover , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:visited , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:active { border:0!important; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:active , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Why do men resort to domestic violence EssayBy the time we reach the end of the piece, Wallace is doing a decent impression of a PETA â€Å"fanatic.† He begins to use the language of guilt to desperately try to sway some last few readers to his side. Vivid descriptions of lobsters thrashing around in their boiling pots and knives being thrust into crustacean heads are peppered through a text that finally wraps up by challenging Gourmet magazine’s slogan, â€Å"The Magazine of Good Living.† He brings it up almost in passing. The deep, interesting questions available to him are left unasked, such as whether â€Å"good† living consists of those thi ngs which make one feel special and privileged or whether it means taking the time to appreciate the consequences of one’s own individual choices instead of just going along with the crowd. Is ordering an animal killed for your enjoyment a self-centered act of gluttonous excess or just a decent way to get dinner? Wallace backs away by saying that â€Å"these questions lead straightaway into such deep and treacherous waters that it’s probably best to stop the public discussion right here† (270). His own willingness to stop before broaching this point gives his readers the freedom to do so as well. In the end, Wallace’s inability to set up enough ethos to bring the reluctant portion of his audience along on his exploration of animal-rights issues causes this to be an ineffective piece. The only readers who are interested in its points are those who already agree with them. The vast majority of readers will either tune him out once he starts using more negative and eventually desperate language, or they will get through the piece and then go have some dead animal prepared for their supper without a second thought. He skillfully guides the audience into his net through his early use of neutral language, but when he tries to draw in his catch he ends up opening a giant hole in his netting, allowing many to follow their peers back into the murky sea from whence they came. Sources Cited David Foster Wallace’s essay, â€Å"Consider the Lobster,† in Gourmet Magazine. June 2008.

Normative Development free essay sample

It indicates a typical range of what can be expected at a given time. These are generally referred to as developmental milestones to indicate steps in certain abilities that should be reflected at different ages, as determined by supporting research. In this way, normative development is important because it allows us to understand what to expect at different ages (Sigelman and Rider, 2006). The works of different theoretical viewpoints will be examined, each with differing perspectives on the nature of human development. The degree of variability between these theories brings into question the viability of normative development. The changes and continuities of human development are examined across three broad areas. These are the physical growth of the body, organs and motor skills; the cognitive abilities such as language, perception and memory; and the psychosocial development, which includes social interactions, personality traits and identity (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Human growth, development and aging are guided by a unique genetic program, set into action by the brain and hormones released by the endocrine system. We will write a custom essay sample on Normative Development or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Areas of physical development include brain development, locomotor skills and sensory capabilities. including perception. Developmental phases studied across the lifespan are the infant, from birth to two years, the child from approximately three to twelve years, the adolescent of twelve to eighteen years and finally the adult; young, middle, and elderly. The endocrine system, together with the nervous system, is fundamental to growth during childhood, sexual and physical maturation of the adolescent, performance and aging over the lifespan (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory is still widely influential today and remains directly relevant to contemporary theories on child development. Piaget proposed that all children progress through four universal, stage-like phases, and believed development was predominantly biological-based although he did recognize environmental-learned experience. He considered humans to be adaptive and active in their cognitive development, and to construct new understandings through their explorations. These developments are qualitative and replace former strategies at each new stage (Sigelman Rider, 2006). By arguing these stages were similar and common to all children, Piaget espoused normative development. Piaget’s first stage, from birth to two years, is the sensorimotor period. Infants explore and discover their world using their innate senses and motor skills, solving problems through experimenting. By constructing organized patterns of thought and action schemes they are able to make sense of their world. As children’s knowledge and experiences change, these schemes adapt and change as a result of the ensuing mental conflict and the interpretation of new information. According to Piaget, they learn to construct mental symbols, leading to more purposeful thought and early language, such as babbling and cooing (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Infancy is a time when most fundamental capacities emerge and develop and on which the rest of the lifespan is determined, so it is a crucial period. Babies are born with reflexes, sensory and perceptual capabilities and are able to learn through their experiences. Motor skills are closely connected to perceptual-cognitive developments. Newborns are checked for normal physical development using the Agpar test for heart, colour, reflex, muscle and respiratory (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The critical period for brain development is during late pregnancy and early infancy. Although normal genes roughly determine normal functioning, early xperiences establish the brain’s patterning. Research has shown that babies born into lower socio-economic environments and institutions are at a disadvantage. This is possibly due to poor maternal nutrition, lack of healthcare and advice, and lack of a stimulating environment. Physical and emotional conditions surrounding the pregnant and early inf ant environment can determine and influence whether a baby develops within the developmental norm. Environmental hazards such as pollutants, and exposure to drugs and alcohol can have adverse affects on development that impact across the lifespan. Risks include low birth weight, mental retardation and congenital abnormalities, such as spina bifida and Down syndrome (Sigelman Rider, 2006). There are also sensitive periods within early infancy in which normal vision, perception, hearing and language development can be compromised. Abnormalities can have profound affects on the development of close family members too (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Clearly, considering the complex clinical reality of infant development and factors that cannot be predetermined, Piaget’s theory is too restrictive. Infants and children most likely to experience stable normative development benefit most from a stimulating loving home environment. In his Attachment Theory, psychiatrist John Bowlby argued that humans are biologically disposed to forming close affection ties and behavioral systems that help us normalize our emotions. A secure early attachment to our primary caregiver has been shown to have a positive impact on an individual’s social development and the quality of attachment during infancy can influence the quality of relationships across each subsequent developmental period. Those infants and children, who never form a stable attachment bond through circumstances such as parental absence, are more likely to suffer relationship issues throughout the lifespan. Early emotional strain can raise stress hormone levels in infants and this can impact on their neural development. Evidence shows social relationships affect health and wellbeing, so dysfunction has a direct impact on our development (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Psychologist Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory stresses the role our social interactions have on our development. Bandura believed that by observing other people we construct and memorise mental symbols, which we later use to direct our behaviour. He emphasized the importance of active information processing in behavioural and learning development. By observing the potential consequences of others actions, learners will then decide whether to imitate (Bandura, 2001). This can account in part for language progression. By listening to talking, infants begin to process words. They then imitate other people’s speech, and if this behaviour has favourable consequences, they are more likely to have advanced early language development (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Infants with older siblings also show superior word comprehension, signifying the influence of the social-interaction element (Fletcher-Flinn McCormack, 2000). The core feature of Bandura’s theory is that â€Å"people play a part in their self-development, adaption, and self-renewal with changing times† (Bandura, 2001, p2). Self-efficacy, the belief that one can successfully create a desired outcome, ultimately affects what courses of action people choose, and so affect development. In this way, development is context specific, multi-directional and can differ at all ages. He rejects the notion of universality and believes developmental change occurs gradually and continuously (Sigelman Rider, 2006). In Piaget’s theory, pre-school children aged two to seven, are in the pre-operational stage. Children’s physical growth is steady and they master more advanced motor skills as their muscles strengthen and their agility improves. Their symbolic capacity flourishes as they play and develop language. Creativity rises but appears to lessen at the advent of school. They are unable to think logically and view the world egocentrically. They become more aware of gender and develop early theory of mind, beginning to understand people have different mental states that cause certain behaviours. Dependent on a normal brain, this ability to understand others and adopt their perspective generally leads to better social integration. Piaget believed it is through the interaction with their peers, not adults, that children advance their cognitive development. This appears true for children’s social cognition too, with evidence showing children with siblings have a higher developed theory of mind (Sigelman Rider, 2006). In contrast to Piaget, the Russian psychologist Les Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective emphasizes the role of culture and society in cognitive development. Children learn through interaction with a skilled helper and in response to cultural influences. Language is a key learning tool the child internalizes into personal thought processes, problem solving and language development. As statistics show, in children less than three years, large differences in vocabulary are apparent due to quantity and quality of language they are exposed to. Unlike Piaget who believed guided training does not increase development, Vygotsky’s perspective relies on the premise that children learn and advance through teaching. Evidence of special preschool education services for disadvantaged children shows better performance in cognitive and social skills, suggesting that children can improve their skills if given a stimulating learning environment (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The Bayley Scales test normal mental, motor and behaviour development of infants and are thus a diagnostic tool for neurological problems. Children who suffer autism have trouble developing theory-of-mind, empathy for others and experience socialising problems (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Their development and that of their families will deviate from the expected norms. The rapid growth of electronic technology we are experiencing in the 21st Century will surely advance children’s early cognitive abilities in ways not studied by Piaget and raises doubts as to what we can define as normative today (Bandura, 2001). In Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, children ages seven to eleven begin to reason logically and deductively, thereby improving memory skills and problem solving. Their knowledge base and ability to process information increases. Piaget stated that these cognitive developments are qualitative and occur almost abruptly with each stage, whereas information-processing theorist Robert Siegler argues that these changes occur gradually and variably over time. His â€Å"overlapping waves theory† suggests children adapt and select their strategies to tasks as needed (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p230). Piaget proposed children develop a â€Å"heteronomous morality†, believing in the sacredness of rules, with little consideration of intentions (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p328). More recent findings suggest children are able to differentiate between rules and their level of social cognition is more sophisticated then Piaget expected (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The issue of good nutrition is still crucial to normal development and those children from low socio-economic households are shown to be disadvantaged (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Obesity and the associated disease type 2 diabetes are becoming more prevalent and are one of the biggest health challenges facing western developed nations. Traditionally considered a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel to rising obesity rates. Another by-product of 21st Century living, the epidemic raises questions as to what constitutes a normative physical development (Australian Institute of Health Welfare). In Piaget’s formal-operations stage, from approximately twelve years onwards, adolescents’ cognitive abilities improve as the brain increases, with the beginning of abstract and hypothetical thought, and increased attention span. During adolescence, strong bonds with peers are formed and many experience with intimate relationships. They develop more advanced social perspective-taking capacities, entering what Piaget termed the â€Å"Autonomous morality† stage, where they start to take into account others intentions and view rules as changeable contracts (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p383). In his social cognitive perspective, Bandura stresses that our moral cognition is tied to our moral behaviour. This behaviour is learned through observation, and is reinforced by the consequences of our behaviour. It is monitored internally by our individual standards of morality. So if we have not internalised strong moral standards, we are more likely to become involved in immoral behaviour. Personality traits and resulting behaviours alter and adapt according to specific social environments. Adolescent’s ability to think more independently can also lead to greater confusion and rebellion. This is particularly evident in adolescent’s often reckless conduct and risk taking that can have huge implications on their future development (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Adding to the internal confusion is the dramatic physical changes that occur. A surge in growth hormones creates a growth spurt and muscles develop rapidly. Both sexes experience sexual maturation, or puberty. The psychological effects of puberty are significant as teenagers grapple with their sexual changes and increased levels of hormones. Adolescents often become preoccupied with body image and how they are perceived and a period of internal conflict and self-identity emerges. Evidence also indicates the age at which adolescents experience puberty has a significant affect on all aspects of their development, including sense of identity, academic performance and social confidence. Levels of cognitive development, home and cultural environment and scope for opportunities create a diverse range of experiences and differing developmental results (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Research has shown that some adults do not reach or use Piaget’s final stage, formal-operational thought, especially in remote rural cultures where social experiences are limited. There is also evidence that people swing between Piaget’s later stages depending on the social and environmental context (Sigelman Rider, 2006). This questions Piaget’s assertion of universality and discontinuity. Although Piaget suggested that cognitive development was mastered by age eighteen, research indicates some adults reach another level, known as postformal thought. The qualitative difference is relativistic thinking, that is, â€Å"†¦ understanding that knowledge depends on the subjective perspective of the knower† (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p 206). In young and middle adulthood, cognitive abilities strengthen and intelligence stabilizes. In later adulthood, some mental and physical capabilities slowly start to weaken. The decline in neural functioning affects cognition and perception, with the most universal changes in capacities being visual and auditory. However self-esteem and identity seem to remain stable. As we age, disease and physical ailments increase although good nutrition and keeping physically active contribute to healthy development. Keeping mentally alert and socially active can also slow down declines in cognition. Deterioration of the nervous system occurs leading to degrees in memory loss, and often alzheimers. There are considerable differences in aged development, while many older adults remain alert and active across most of the lifespan, others contract debilitating diseases (Sigelman Rider, 2006). An expected normative development, then, appears problematic. Universal stage theories, such as Piaget’s, have been formulated within specific social contexts and value systems. A normal developmental milestone expected in one culture may not be valued or relevant in another. These developmental norms are also influenced by factors such as the group studied, culture and generation and so conceal wide variations among the subjects. Criticisms of many studies include a cultural and gender-bias, and a lack of consideration for the relevant historical and social contexts (Sigelman Rider, 2006). While Piaget has been hugely influential in furthering understanding cognitive development, particularly in children, and there may be some degrees of universal growth, such theories fail to factor in our unique experiences, the dynamics of change and the significant individual variabilities to these norms as evident in our world. As German psychologist Paul Baltes (1980) successfully argues, developmental-processes can occur at any age in life and are influenced by historical, biological, sociocultural and unexpected life events that can account for substantial individual variation. Bandura’s social cognitive theory takes into account this complex interplay of individual biological potentialities, different psychosocial influences and the adaptive modes of behaviour people adopt to shape their development (Bandura 2001). People are proactive and â€Å"†¦bring their influence to bear on how they live their lives† (Bandura, 2001, p13). Today, with the advance of genetic research and a more sophisticated understanding of human development, the focus of development now lies in the fluctuating balance of gene-environment interaction (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The study of identical and non-identical twins has advanced scientists’ findings. By studying twins reared together and apart, scientists are able to better estimate the degree to which heredity and environment contribute to an individual’s makeup (Wright, 1997, p1). So although it will always be problematic establishing beyond a doubt the exact degree of influence, the sheer scale of contributing and conflicting factors that shape our development means there will remain ambiguity concerning normative development. â€Å"Assuming that the infant has normal opportunities to explore and experience the world, the result will be a normal brain and normal development† (Sigelman, 2006, p155). The degree to which this can be true depends greatly on seemingly immeasurable, complex and changing conditions. At best, by attempting to define normative development, theorists offer guidelines that aid us in understanding the many developmental possibilities and alert us to the vast differences in human development. But the different sources of influence such as genetics, nutrition, rearing, social class, temperament, ethnicity and culture that determine our development are too diverse and complex to allow for a truly predictable normative development.

The History of the Olmec Site of La Venta

The History of the Olmec Site of La Venta The Olmec capital of La Venta is located in the city of Huimanguillo, in the state of Tabasco, Mexico, 15 kilometers (9 miles) inland from the Gulf coast. The site is perched on a narrow natural elevation approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) long which rises above the wetland swamps on the coastal plain. La Venta was first occupied as early as 1750 BC, becoming an Olmec temple-town complex between 1200 and 400 BC. La Venta was the primary center of the Olmec culture and likely the most important regional capital in non-Maya Mesoamerica during the Middle Formative period (approximately 800-400 BC). In its heyday, La Ventas residential zone included an area of ~200 hectares (500 acres), with a population numbering in the thousands. Architecture at La Venta Most of the structures at La Venta were built of wattle-and-daub walls placed atop earthen or adobe mudbrick platforms or mounds  and covered with a thatched roof. Little natural stone was available, and, apart from the massive stone sculptures, the only stone used in public architecture was a few basalt, andesite and limestone foundational support or internal buttresses. The 1.5 km (~1 mi) long civic-ceremonial core of La Venta includes over 30 earthen mounds and platforms. The core is dominated by a 30 meter (100 foot) high clay pyramid (called Mound C-1), which has been heavily eroded  but was likely the largest single building at the time in Mesoamerica. Despite the lack of native stone, La Ventas artisans crafted sculptures including four colossal heads from massive blocks of stone quarried from the Tuxtla Mountains approximately 100 km (62 mi) to the west. The most intensive archaeological investigations at La Venta were conducted in Complex A, a small group of low clay platform mounds and plazas within an area of about 1.4 hectares (3 acres), located immediately north of the tallest pyramidal mound. Most of Complex A was destroyed shortly after the excavations in 1955, by a combination of looters and civic development. However, detailed maps of the area were made by the excavators and, due primarily to the efforts of archaeologist Susan Gillespie, a digital map of the buildings and construction events at Complex A has been made (Gillespie, Gillespie, and Volk). Read more on Complex A at La Venta Subsistence Methods Traditionally, scholars have attributed the rise of Olmec society to the development of maize agriculture. According to recent investigations, however, the people at La Venta subsisted on fish, shellfish and terrestrial faunal remains until about 800 BC, when maize, beans, cotton, palm and other crops were grown in gardens on relict beach ridges, called tierra de primera by maize farmers today, perhaps fueled by long-distance trade networks. Killion (2013) conducted a survey of paleobotanical data from several Olmec period sites including La Venta. He suggests that the initial founders at La Venta and other Early Formative sites such as San Lorenzo were not farmers, but rather were hunter-gatherer-fishers. That dependence on mixed hunting and gathering extends well into the Formative period. Killion suggests that the mixed subsistence worked in the well-watered lowland environments, but that a wetland environment was not suited to intensive agriculture. La Venta and the Cosmos La Venta is oriented 8 degrees west of north, like most Olmec sites, the significance of which is obscure to date. This alignment is echoed in Complex As central avenue, which points to the central mountain. The central bars of each of La Ventas mosaic pavements  and the four elements of the quincunxes in the mosaics are positioned at intercardinal points. Complex D at La Venta is an E-Group configuration, a specific layout of buildings identified at over 70 Maya sites and believed to have been designed to track movements of the sun. Archaeology La Venta was excavated by members of the Smithsonian Institution, including Matthew Stirling, Philip Drucker, Waldo Wedel and Robert Heizer, in three major excavations between 1942 and 1955. Most of this work was focused on Complex A: and the finds from that work were published in popular texts and La Venta quickly became the type site for defining the Olmec culture. Shortly after the 1955 excavations, the site was badly damaged by looting and development, although a brief expedition did retrieve some stratigraphic data. Much was lost in Complex A, which was torn up by bulldozers. A map of Complex A made in 1955 formed the basis for digitizing the field records of the site. Gillespie and Volk worked together to create a three-dimensional map of Complex A, based on archived notes and drawings and published in 2014. The most recent archaeological studies have been undertaken by Rebecca Gonzlez Lauck at the Instituto Nacional de Antropologà ­a e Historia (INAH). Sources Clark JE, and Colman A. 2013. Olmec Things and Identity: A Reassessment of Offerings and Burials at La Venta, Tabasco. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association  23(1):14-37. doi: 10.1111/apaa.12013 Gillespie S. 2011. Archaeological Drawings as Re-Presentations: The Maps of Complex A, La Venta, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity  22(1):3-36. doi: 10.7183/1045-6635.22.1.3 Gillespie SD, and Volk M. In press. A 3d model of Complex A, La Venta, Mexico. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (in press). doi: 10.1016/j.daach.2014.06.001 Killion TW. 2013. Nonagricultural cultivation and social complexity (with commentary). Current Anthropology 54(5):596-606. doi: 10.2307/276200 Pohl MD, and von Nagy C. 2008. The Olmec and their contemporaries. In: Pearsall DM, editor. Encyclopedia of Archaeology . London: Elsevier Inc. p 217-230. doi: 10.1016/B978-012373962-9.00425-8 Reilly FK. 1989. Enclosed ritual spaces and the watery underworld in Formative period architecture: New observations on the function of La Venta Complex A. In: Robertson MG, and Fields VM, editors. Seventh Palenque Round Table. San Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute. Rust WF, and Sharer RJ. 1988. Olmec Settlement Data from La Venta, Tabasco, Mexico. Science 242(4875):102-104. doi: 10.1126/science.242.4875.102

AP Test Dates 2020 Complete Calendar

AP Test Dates 2020 Complete Calendar SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Looking for the 2020 AP exam dates? We have the complete 2020 AP test datesas well as advice for getting through the busy May exam season. Keep reading to stay on top of your 2019-20 study schedule and to get tips for dealing with the stress of endless AP tests! 2020 AP Exam Dates Here are the AP exam dates for 2020. All exams take place during the first two weeks of May (you'll receive your results in mid-July). Note that there is not an exam for AP Studio Art, but the portfolio deadline falls during the exam period. All AP test dates have been confirmed by the College Board. If you’re taking two AP classes whose exam times conflict, talk to your school counselor; the College Board will work with you to give you a late testing slot for one of them. Week 1 AP Schedule (2020) Morning (8 am) Afternoon (12 pm) Afternoon (2 pm) Monday (May 4) United States Government and Politics Physics C: Mechanics Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Tuesday (May 5) Calculus AB German Language and Culture Calculus BC Human Geography Wednesday (May 6) English Literature and Composition European History Physics 2: Algebra-Based Thursday (May 7) Chemistry Japanese Language and Culture Spanish Literature and Culture Physics 1: Algebra-Based Friday (May 8) United States History Art History Computer Science A Friday, May 8, 2020, is the deadline for AP Studio Art (2-D Art and Design, 3-D Art and Design, and Drawing). It's the last day for Coordinators to submit digital portfolios (by 8 pm ET) and to gather students in 2-D Design and Drawing for portfolio assembly. Teachers should have already forwarded completed digital portfolios to Coordinators before this date. Week 2 AP Schedule (2020) Morning (8 am) Afternoon (12 pm) Monday (May ) Biology Chinese Language and Culture Environmental Science Tuesday (May 12) Seminar Latin Spanish Language and Culture Psychology Wednesday (May 13) English Language and Composition Microeconomics Music Theory Thursday (May 14) Comparative Government and Politics Italian Language and Culture World History: Modern Macroeconomics Friday (May 15) Computer Science Principles Statistics French Language and Culture Want to get a perfect 5 on your AP exam and an A in class? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. How to Stay Focused During the AP Exam Period It can be tough to manage your time in May and feel prepared for each AP test- whether you’re taking two AP exams or five! I’m actually pretty familiar with the AP time crunch. In my last three years of high school, I had multiple exams every May, and each year had a different but equally challenging schedule. Sophomore year I had three AP tests in one week. Junior year I took two tests in two days. Senior year was more of a marathon: I took four tests, stretching from the first day of testing to the last! Whether your AP schedule feels like a sprint or a marathon, you can expect it to be challenging. From experience, I know it can be challenging to keep your energy and motivation up during the exam period. So my main piece of advice is to memorize your AP exam schedule as early as possible so you can start preparing for May. As an example, if you realize you’re going to have three AP tests in three days, you should get all of your studying out of the way before AP exams start. This way you can focus on staying rested during the exam period and not stress yourself out with last-minute cramming. On the other hand, if you have tests on the first Monday, the second Monday, and the last Friday of the exam period, you should plan to do some studying during May for your last two tests. That said, definitely prioritize the test you’re taking soonest, and make sure you’re prepared for it before May rolls around. Consult the tables above and figure out what your AP exam schedule looks like for 2019. Next, follow our rules for staying focused and motivated during May. #1: Don’t Cram! By May, you should have learned all major concepts and taken at least one practice exam for each AP test you're taking. Trying to pull off last-minute studying during the exam period, such as by rushing through a prep book or taking tons of practice exams, will just stress you out. You’ll study more effectively if you give yourself plenty of time. If you finish major studying before May, you can use any extra time to review tricky concepts and to ensure you're getting enough rest. #2: Focus on Your Weak Points If you have one exam that you know is going to be the hardest for you, prioritize any extra time you have in May toward that test. For example, if you’re taking both AP Calculus AB and AP US History- and you’re pretty confident about Calculus- you can use any extra time in May to keep working on AP US History. Memorize dates, practice essay questions, or review your notes. If you try to spend equal time on every upcoming exam in May, you risk spreading yourself too thin. Again, this is why it's so important to begin studying early so you have enough time to learn all the major concepts for your tests well before May! #3: Timing Is Everything When doing practice sections in April or May- either multiple choice or free response- be sure to time yourself strictly so you're prepared for actual AP test timing. Earlier in the year, it’s appropriate to take a few untimed multiple choice or free-response sections. But right before your AP tests, you need to make sure that you're prepared for what the actual exam timing will be like. Do this, and it'll make taking the AP tests much less stressful, since you'll be used to the time constraints! #4: Don’t Burn Yourself Out If you have multiple exams in a week, or two days in a row (or two in a day!), limit heavy studying during that time and instead confirm that you’re getting enough rest. Right before an AP test, getting enough sleep and eating a healthy, balanced breakfast or lunch will do far more to improve your score than will memorizing a few more facts or doing one more practice test. #5: Be Self-Reflective If you’re the type to obsess over studying and get really anxious about tests, try to actively make time to do something fun or get some exercise in during the AP exam period. Whether that's doing yoga, going for a run, or reading your favorite book, taking time to relax is key, since anxiety can (and will!) negatively affect your performance on test day. However, if you’re having a tough time staying motivated late in the year and have been slacking on studying, definitely take the time you have left in May to do some practice sections or review key terms. Remember, finishing strong and doing well on your AP tests is important to getting the most out of your AP classes! #6: Don’t Forget Your Other Classes Most teachers should be sympathetic about homework and assignments during the AP test period, but you still want to be surethat your schedule isn’t crammed with cramming in case you have to deal with non-AP class assignments, too. Your high school GPA is very important for college admissions, so don't let AP exams completely distract you from your other classes! #7: Remember Your Goals Whether you’re hoping to ace AP Spanish so you won’t have to take a language in college, or you're aiming for high scores across the board to make you competitive for top schools, don't lose track of your goals during May. Even though it can be exhausting and stressful to have a handful of AP exams, make sure to keep your reasons for taking the tests in the back of your mind. This will give you the motivation you need to finish strong and pass your exams! What About AP Test Dates for Future Years? You might be wondering what the AP exam schedule is for 2021 and beyond. Unfortunately, we cannot predict the schedule exactly. This is because the AP Calendar tends to change a bit from year to year. Since there are always slight changes, we can’t say for certain what the 2021 calendar will look like- even though the changes from year to year are often minor. Here are the schedules from the last three years, with changes from the previousyear highlighted in yellow: 2019 AP Testing Schedule Week 1 (2019) Morning (8 am) Afternoon (12 pm) Monday (May 6) United States Government and Politics Chinese Language and Culture Environmental Science Tuesday (May 7) Seminar Japanese Language and Culture Spanish Language and Culture Physics 1: Algebra-Based Wednesday (May 8) English Literature and Composition European History French Language and Culture Thursday (May 9) Chemistry German Language and Culture Spanish Literature and Culture Psychology Friday (May 10) United States History Computer Science Principles Physics 2: Algebra-Based Week 2 (2019) Morning (8am) Afternoon (12pm) Afternoon (2pm) Monday (May 13) Biology Physics C: Mechanics Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Tuesday (May 14) Calculus AB Art History Calculus BC Human Geography Wednesday (May 15) English Language and Composition Italian Language and Culture Macroeconomics Thursday (May 16) Comparative Government and Politics Statistics World History Friday (May 17) Microeconomics Computer Science A Music Theory Latin 2018 AP Testing Schedule Week 1 (2018) Morning (8 am) Afternoon (12 pm) Monday (May 7) Chemistry Psychology Spanish Literature and Culture Tuesday (May 8) Seminar Art History Spanish Language and Culture Physics 1: Algebra-Based Wednesday (May 9) English Literature and Composition Japanese Language and Culture Physics 2: Algebra-Based Thursday (May 10) United States Government and Politics Chinese Language and Culture Environmental Science Friday (May ) German Language and Culture Computer Science Principles United States History Week 2 (2018) Morning (8am) Afternoon (12pm) Afternoon (2pm) Monday (May 14) Biology Physics C: Mechanics Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Music Theory Tuesday (May 15) Calculus AB French Language and Culture Calculus BC Computer Science A Wednesday (May 16) English Language and Composition Italian Language and Culture Macroeconomics Thursday (May 17) Comparative Government and Politics Statistics World History Friday (May 18) Human Geography Latin Microeconomics European History 2017 AP Testing Schedule Week 1 (2017) Morning (8 am) Afternoon (12 pm) Monday (May 1) Chemistry Psychology Environmental Science Tuesday (May 2) Computer Science A Art History Spanish Language and Culture Physics 1: Algebra-Based Wednesday (May 3) English Literature and Composition Japanese Language and Culture Physics 2: Algebra-Based Thursday (May 4) United States Government and Politics Chinese Language and Culture Seminar Friday (May 5) German Language and Culture Computer Science Principles United States History Week 2 (2017) Morning (8am) Afternoon (12pm) Afternoon (2pm) Monday (May 8) Biology Physics C: Mechanics Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Music Theory Tuesday (May 9) Calculus AB French Language and Culture Calculus BC Spanish Literature and Culture Wednesday (May 10) English Language and Composition Italian Language and Culture Macroeconomics Thursday (May ) Comparative Government and Politics Statistics World History Friday (May 12) Human Geography Latin Microeconomics European History 2016 AP Testing Schedule Week 1 (2016) Morning (8 am) Afternoon (12 pm) Monday (May 2) Chemistry Psychology Environmental Science Tuesday (May 3) Computer Science A Art History Spanish Language and Culture Physics 1: Algebra-Based Wednesday (May 4) English Literature and Composition Japanese Language and Culture Physics 2: Algebra-Based Thursday (May 5) Calculus AB Chinese Language and Culture Calculus BC Seminar Friday (May 6) German Language and Culture European History United States History Week 2 (2016) Morning (8am) Afternoon (12pm) Afternoon (2pm) Monday (May 9) Biology Physics C: Mechanics Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Music Theory Tuesday (May 10) United States Government and Politics French Language and Culture Spanish Literature and Culture Wednesday (May ) English Language and Composition Italian Language and Culture Macroeconomics Thursday (May 12) Comparative Government and Politics Statistics World History Friday (May 13) Human Geography Latin Microeconomics There was quite a bit of change in AP test scheduling from 2018 to 2019- nearly half of all the AP exams moved around time- or day-wise (although most of the change happened to tests in the afternoon of week 1). From 2017 to 2018, just four changes in the AP schedule took place. These were as follows: Spanish Literature and Culture switched from the afternoon in week 2 to the morning in week 1 AP Seminar shifted from the afternoon late in week 1 to a morning slot earlier in week 1 Environmental Sciencechanged from week 1 in the morning to week 1 in the afternoon Computer Science A went from a week 1 morning slot to a week 2 afternoon slot There were also some minor schedule changes between 2016 and 2017.The Calculus AB/BC and US Government and Politics tests switched slots in weeks 1 and 2, while European History moved from week 1 to week 2. Lastly, 2017 welcomed the new Computer Science Principles test, which began as an AP course in 2016. If you look back five or even 10 years, the dates change more, and the exams evolve as well. Some AP tests have been added over time (such as the new Physics exams), and some have been taken away, such as French Literature and Studio Art. In short, you can expect the AP test schedule for the next year or two to look somewhat similar to the 2020 schedule- but you can’t do any longer-term planning beyond that! What’s Next? Learn more about AP tests- how long they are, how many you should take, and which ones are the easiest and hardest for students. Also studying for the SAT or ACT? Develop a target SAT score based on your top schools (ACT version here). Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the ACT instead? Then get a complete guide to the ACT. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Fiscal aspects of health care delivery Research Paper

Fiscal aspects of health care delivery - Research Paper Example Although health insurance had developed much, there was shortage of health facilities in US. To increase the number of health facilities, the Hospital Survey and Construction Act of 1946 was enacted. The sources of money for construction of healthcare facilities came from the state and local sources. As the mode of delivery of health care improved, the cost of health care increased and many people were unable to pay the cost. In 1960, third–party payment systems for health care were created and they acted as the standard mode of health care cost payment in the country. The growth of third-party payment systems increased further the cost of health care. This is because many patients were able to access health care services without out-of-pocket expenses. Those uninsured found it more difficult to access health care services. In 1965, Medicare and Medicaid programs were established to give people more access to health care services. These programs were meant to cater for the elderly, disabled and the poor. Several acts were enacted between 1940 and 1993 and all were meant to improve the delivery of health care services. The acts were as a result of the demands and improvements in medical fields (Kotecki, McKenzie and Pinger, 2008). The US economy is concerned with the rising cost of health care services. Over the last decades the cost of healthcare services has been rising every year. Health care inflation will greatly affect the economy in the coming years due to a number of factors concerned with the delivery of these services. The number of uninsured people is also increasing and this is a concern because many of these people are low income earners, poor, elderly or disabled. Their accessibility to better health care services is very minimal (Jonas and Kovner, 2008). Quality of health care services has been reducing and it is estimated that between 40, 000 and 100, 000 Americans die each year due to medical

Risk management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Risk management - Assignment Example In management of risk, the recognition, evaluation and prioritization of risks is done which is then followed by synchronized and estimated application of revenue and resources to reduce, supervise and control the probable happening of an unfortunate incident so as to maximize the usage and benefits of opportunities. There are different principles of risk management; the following are as proposed by the International Organization for Standardization. They are: To create value To be an essential part of the processes within the organization To play a role in the decision making process Openly discuss the risks Maintain a structured approach which is systematic Be tailor made The human factors be given importance and acknowledgement The policies should be fool proof BURJ KHALIFA Burj Khalifa which was initially known as Burj Dubai is located in Dubai and its construction was carried out by Emaar Properties. Its construction lasted for six continuous years starting from 2004 to 2009 and it is used for a lot of purposes be it residential, entertainment or business facilities; Burj Khalifa offers all. Its construction was done with the aim of making it into such a building which is diversified and convenient in its use; its interior boasts a dining area, a fitness club that stretches up to four stories, 37 floors that are dedicated for office use, 160 rooms that serves as the residing area for guests, 144 private residential suites, a park of 11 hectare, 6 features of water, swimming pools, a are garage that has the capacity to accommodate 3000 cars, an observation deck and approach to the scrupulously planned Dubai downtown which grants more packages and facilities to the investors of Burj Khalifa. (Frederic, 2010) RISK MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS OF BURJ KHALIFA Risk is a term that applies to an uncertain happening that may occur and impose a positive or negative effect on a certain task. Risk has a 100% chance of occurring or otherwise hence risk management aims at c ontemplating the possible causes that may contribute to a risk; thus strategies are developed to cope with it and prevent. Risk taking is a bold step and is often considered by some organizations during a project since it might in cases produce positive results. Certain risk management strategies are meticulously applied in the construction of Burj Khalifa. A few of them will be discussed here in detail. The frontage of the 01 tower in Burj Khalifa is constructed in a unique manner; the entire facade is perforated with openings which are 1,000 in number. If looked from a distance, these perforations look like O’s however a close glance at them reveals them to be as diamond or oval shaped. This design was an innovative attempt to design Burj Khalifa and was presented by Reiser-Umemoto and RUR Architecture. A competition held by the Dubai Properties gave birth to this exclusive concept in which Shahab Lufti had encouraged the group to come up with a design for the new building that would become the tallest skyscraper in the world. It is a very simple structure in which a diagrid is made of concrete and has openings that change through 4 different scales that range from 2.5m to 6.5m. This would prove to be very beneficial since the concrete frontage was designed in such a manner that would serve the purpose of a sunscreen in Dubai’

Ocean of information Essay Example for Free

Ocean of information Essay Information seeking skills are needed whenever there is a search for new information. With the advent of the internet there is suddenly a lot of information available at the click of a mouse and yet, one needs to have some knowledge and skills to obtain the relevant information from the vast ocean of information on the internet. When it comes to searching on the internet, there are many search tools available: search engines, subject directories / virtual libraries, invisible (deep) web databases, Meta search engines, etc (Barker, 2007). Search engines such as Googleâ„ ¢, AlltheWeb, MSN, Teoma, AltaVista and Wisent provide specific information (Bazac, 2006). Metasearch engines such as ez2Find, Division, Info Grid, Info NetWare, boogie, etc can be used when searching for a unique search term, or in-depth information on a particular subject (Bazac, 2006). Web directories such as Googleâ„ ¢ Directory, Open Directory Project (ODP), Yahoo! Zeal, JoeAnt and Gimpsy provide general information on popular topics, and scholarly information is best got from virtual libraries such as Librarians Index to the Internet, INFOMINE, and Internet Public Library (Bazac, 2006). Real time information is best obtained through deep web which are specialized databases (MU, 2007). Examples of excellent invisible web databases are Profusion, Invisible-web. net, Complete Planet, Resource Discovery Network and direct search (Moore, 2007). Robert Muldrow Cooper Library, attached to the Clemson University, is known for its automated information retrieval system, the Clemson facilities (CU, 2007). Numerous periodical indexes are housed on-line and available for automated searching. The collections deal mainly with agriculture, natural and physical sciences, economics and technology. Many of the databases that include full text of many articles are available for access through the internet. There are many links to web indexes, search engines, and tips on searching and evaluating sources (CU, 2007). The essential steps in an internet-based search strategy are having a focus, identifying and understanding the key concepts of the topic, finding alternative terms for these concepts and identifying the place for searching and this includes synonyms, plural/singular forms, spelling variations, variations of root words and acronyms (MU, 2007). If the initial information is too little or too much, the search terms should be modified. A search may be broadened by any of the following steps: reducing the number of concepts, using an OR search, looking for alternative terms, using more general search terms, using subject headings as search terms or using alternate spellings. On the other hand, a search may be narrowed by using an AND or NOT search, looking for more specific alternative terms, using subject headings as search terms, or using more precise terms (MU, 2007). Journal websites that can provide full text articles for nursing students and professionals include NursingCenter, Medscape, Hardin MD and Online Journals (Research Medical Library). CINAHL sources provide links to websites of interest to various journals of interest to nursing and allied professions (CINAHL, 2007). CINAHL stands for Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature. Other important websites for nursing information include Medscape, Toxline and AIDSLINE, Journal of Nursing Management, NursingCenter, and The American Journal of Nursing (AJN). The AJN site allows one to find articles from more than 50 trusted nursing journals, including AJN and Nursing2007. Registration is free (AJN, 2007). Thus, the internet is a treasure trove of information for the searcher with the right set of searching skills. Bibliography: CINAHL (2007). http://www. cinahl. com/csources/csources. htm Barker, Joe (2007). Finding Information on the Internet: A Tutorial. http://www. lib. berkeley. edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/FindInfo. html MU (Monash University) (2007). Library Online Tutorials. http://www.monash.edu/library

Poem XVIL by Emily Dickinson :: Poetry

Poem XVIL Even though this poem is only two very short paragraphs, it has a very strong meaning behind it that can be explained easily. What this poem is saying is that even through Dickinson has never seen the ocean, ever prayed to God, or ever gone to church, she can still imagine what the waves look like on the ocean, rolling over each other all day and all night. She can also imagine what it’s like to be one of gods people, having a great and loving connection with him. What she’s saying is that she doesn’t need to SEE something with her own eyes to know the general idea of what it does. She can simply look at a painting of the ocean to see what the waves look like. Or talk to one of gods people to figure out how they felt about having god in their lives. Even though she doesn’t experience things first hand, she can use her common sense to fill in the gaps of what she doesn’t know. Common sense is one of the big things that makes this poem American. We, as Americans, are always looking for that back door, that easy way out, a way to skip a few steps to get to the finish. We will try to fix the car or computer ourselves before looking at the instruction manual that tells us exactly how to do it, thinking it may save us some time. We use our common sense. We believe that we can fill in the gaps with what we already know. Are we right in not looking at the instruction manual first? Sometimes†¦ But sometimes we will only make it worse. Many people or ideas in America have become miss-understood because no one wants to look deeper into it, and they simply go along with what the bandwagon says about that person or those ideas.

How did Eratoshenes Measured the Circumference of the Earth? Essay

About a matter of two hundred decades ago, Greek astronomers valued the erudition that the shape of the Earth is correspondingly a sphere. And as the moon passes through the shadow of the earth, or that which is called a lunar eclipse, the Greeks have observed the circular shadow casted by the Earth. Since that time, it was already an established intellect that only spherical objects cast a circular shadow, thus, the conclusion that the Earth is likewise spherical in shape. The mere conclusion of the Earth’s shape, nevertheless, did not achieve contentment to the Greeks. A Greek astronomer by the name Eratoshenes discovered a possible way in measuring the Earth’s circumference. It started when he had heard some reports from one of Egypt’s city, Syene, which was located on the equator of the earth. The reports have informed Eratosthenes that the sun shows vertical wells down on Syene during the first day of summer. However, the astronomer did not observe any similar phenomenon anywhere by his home; therefore he arrived at the supposition that in his home, Alexandria, which lies 7 degrees north of the city of Syene, the sun never does reach zenith. Eratoshenes further presupposed that the sun is in line with the potential measurement of about 7 degrees south of his residency’s zenith during summer solstice or the first day of summer. Provided such conclusion, the distance from Alexandria and Syene was believed to be 7/360 or 1/150 that of the circumference of the Earth ( a complete circle has a 360 degree measure). Additionally, way back Eratoshenes’ time, â€Å"stade† was the known standard unit of measurement, which then is equal to 1/6 of a kilometer. Consequently, there are 5,000 stades from Syene to Alexandria and from such logic, the Earth’s circumference was calculated to be: 50 x 25,000 stades = 42,000 kilometers. Accordingly, the accepted modern value of the Earth’s circumference is 40,000 km, hence Eratosthenes was correct. References â€Å"The Earth and Moon, Size of the Earth cont. † Publication retrieved on 10 Sept 2007 from http://inkido. indiana. edu/a100/earthmoon7. html

Physiological Education Essay

Harvard President Lawrence Summers caused quite a stir in January 2005 when he proposed that women are lagging behind in science and mathematics because of â€Å"innate differences between the sexes† (Angier and Chang, 2005). Angier and Chang at the New York Times agree. They write that research has found that there are a lot of discrepancies–the architecture of their brains, in quantitative test scores, attitudes toward math and science–between men and women (Angier and Chang, 2005). The New York Times report found that boys have outscored girls in the math part of the SATs by as much as 35 points, while verbal scores are very similar. On the other hand, the report notes that there are more boys with attention-deficit disorder, learning disabilities, and autism (Angier and Chang, 2005). Boys, on the other hand, fare rather poorly with reading and writing. NAEP writing tests results in 2003 showed that boys scored 24 points lower than girls. The trend can be seen as early as the fourth grade all the way through college (Connell and Gunzelmann, 2004). Kate Melville explains that girls mainly use a system that is involves more memorization and association of words, while boys rely on a system the deals with the rules of language. Melville, citing a study by Michael Ullman, adds that both boys and girls are using different neurocognitive brain processes in learning language, and information processing (Melville, 2006). Jasna Jovanovic and Candice Dreves sums it up in saying that over the years, the notion is that boys have superior spatial abilities, which helps them in math. While girls are better at language and writing (1995). Do girls learn differently from boys? This paper will provide proof that they indeed do, and will try to delve into why and how they learn differently. Lastly it looks into recommendations for addressing such learning disparities between the genders. Preferences in Learning Styles Erica Wehrwein and her fellow researchers identify the learning style preferences of students to include visual, auditory, read-write, and kinesthetic. They also found that a little more than half of the females preferred a single mode of presenting information, as opposed to only 12. 5% of males (Wehrwein, et. al. , 2007). More than a third of the females favored the kinesthetic mode, followed by the read-write mode at16. 7% (Wehrwein, et. al. , 2007). On the other hand, boys preferred auditory, read-write and kinesthetic evenly (Wehrwein, et. al. , 2007). The researchers conclude that there is a significance difference in learning style preferences between boys and girls. Brain-based Differences Nikhil Swaminathan at the Scientific American says that a growing body of studies over since the 1960s have documented that girls have superior language skills. Swaminathan cites a journal report from the Neuropsychologia that says that girls completing a linguistic-related task showed greater activity in the areas of the brain that are responsible for language encoding, and abstract deciphering of information. The boys showed more activities in the visual and auditory areas, depending on how the words were presented (Swaminathan, 2008). Swaminathan concludes that in a classroom, it implies that boys have to be taught visually and orally (through texts and lecture) to gain a full understanding of the lesson, while girls can pick up the concepts by using one of either (Swaminathan, 2008). The study monitored the brain activities of 62 kids (31 of each) from 9 to 15 years old (Swaminathan, 2008). CBS News correspondent Elizabeth Kaledin cites a study conducted by University of California at Irvine psychologist Richard Haire, which shows that at the very least, men’s and women’s brains work differently (Kaledin, 2005). Kaledin also cites Dr. Jay Geidd’s studies showing that boys and girls have different brain development, with girls’ brains maturing faster than boy’s, except in the area involved in mechanical skills (Kaledin, 2005). Dr. Leonard Sax offers a much more empirical example, saying that at 12, the geometry area in a girl’s brain is equal to that of an 8 year old boy, while the language area of a boy’s brain is three or four years behind that of a girl’s brain. Dr. Sax concludes that boys and girls see, hear and respond differently (Kaledin, 2005). The Environment’s Role In an interview Parent News, Jasna Jovanovic stresses that there are no genetically-based differences between girls and boys. Jovanovic, however, says that girls will benefit more from teaching methods that include performance-based assessments, hands-on, active approaches, and cooperative learning. Jovanovic also reiterated that the difference might lie in the child’s environment. Jovanovic laments that societal expectations and stereotypes tell girls that they are not good in math or science, so they shouldn’t be very interested in it (Understanding Gender†¦ , undated). Jovanovic participated in a single-sex education in grades K-12 roundtable discussion sponsored by the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. Jovanovic’s view is shared by Barnard President Judith Shapiro who adding that while nature may form part of the loss of interest among girls in science, there is also the nurture part (Kaledin, 2005). Donna Milgram, expounding on the gender differences in math, science, engineering and technology, says that the reason why many girls are floundering in these areas is that they have less experience in the hands-on application of learning principles than boys. Milgram says that the studies show that gender differences, most likely, stems out of nurture, not nature (Milgram, undated). Milgram adds that another important area of concern is that of perception and confidence. Females are most likely to succeed in science, engineering, technology and math if they feel confident that they could master it (Milgram, undated). Recommendations Jovanovic and Dreves recommends that child care providers and teachers give every child the chance to learn math and science. Staff should be trained on the equal treatment of boys and girls in the classroom, as well as be given the necessary resources and materials to give the children hands-on experiences in both subjects (Jovanovic and Dreves, 1995). Jovanovic, in the Parents News interview, also suggests a smaller class size, a core curriculum approach, more personal relationships between teahcers, students and administrators, more higher-order thinking-related activities (Understanding Gender†¦ , undated). Teachers, as well as students, need to be aware of learning style preferences. That way, they can tailor-fit their instruction, activities and tasks to optimize learning. Dr. Leonard Sax says that it’s very important to understand and pay more attention to the learning differences between girls and boys, and even in the differences in the way they develop. Dr. Sax points out that if we continue to ignore these differences, chances are at age 13, we’d have girls who think they can’t do math and boys who think that poetry is a waste of time (Kaledin, 2005). * * * The body of evidence, the growing of research, the viewpoints held by various authorities may differ, at the very least, and contrasting and confusing at the most. What’s clear, however, is the fact that girls and boys differ in they ways that they learn something. It may be attributed to physiological factors, or it may stem from the child’s environment. The debate, however, is important not because we need to determine whether boys are more intelligent than girls. That is way beside the point. Our role as educators is to make sure that our students learn, in a manner that’s easy for them. While suggestions have been brought to extremes like a single-sex classroom setting, the bulk of the responsibility rests on our shoulders. We need to understand these differences, be it physiological, or environmental. We need to understand our students. We need to understand their learning patterns. Having understood their strengths, and the innate differences, we can tap it to make it easier for them to learn. We need to find out the proper and optimal mix of instruction, of lectures, of the use of materials and resources. We need to be creative, innovative in the classrooms and outside it, in order to capture our students and interests in they way they were wired to appreciate it. Lastly, and perhaps, most importantly, we need to create a supportive classroom environment where boys and girls can be themselves, and make both understand that each of them are there to learn in his or her own style and pace. It’s the only way we can safeguard their self-confidence and esteem. References Angier, Natalie and Chang, Kenneth. (2005). Gray Matter and Sexes: A Gray Area Scientifically. New York Times. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Connell, Diane and Gunzelmann, Betsy. (2004). The New Gender Gap. The Instructor, March 2004. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Kaledin, Elizabeth. (2005). Intellectual Gender Gap? CBS News. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Jovanovic, J. and Dreves C. (1995). Math, science, and girls: Can we close the gender gap? University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Melville, Kate. (2006). Big Gender Differences In Language Learning. Georgetown University Medical Center. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Milgram, Donna. Gender Differences in Learning Style Specific to Science, Technology, Engineering and Math. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Swaminathan, Nikhil. (2008). Girl Talk: Are Women Really Better at Language? Scientific American. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Understanding Gender Differences that May Occur in Classroom Settings. Adoption. Com. Retrieved on 15 April 2008. Wehrwein, Erica, Lujan Heidi and DiCarlo, Stephen. (2007). Gender differences in learning style preferences among undergraduate physiology students. Advances in Physiological Education. Retrieved on 15 April 2008.

Business process re engineering The WritePass Journal

Business process re engineering Introduction Business process re engineering IntroductionTHE IMPACT OF BPR ON AN ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE CONCEPT OF BPRADVANTAGES OF BPR DISADVANTAGES OF BPR ROLE OF IS/IT FUNCTION IN BPRIT PROCESSES AND DEVELOPMENTIMPORTANCE OF IS/IT IN BPRCONTRIBUTIONS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMIMPACT OF IS/IT IN AN ORGANIZATIONLIMITATAIONS TO TECHNOLOGYCONCLUSIONRECOMMENDATIONSBIBLIOGRAPHYREFERENCESRelated Introduction A management approach concerned at making the improvements and developments to the business by raising the efficiency and effectiveness of the processes that exist within and across the organisations. The key for an organisation to success the business process reengineering is to look at their business processes from a clean slate prospect in order to determine how they can improve and better build these processes to lead their businesses. THE IMPACT OF BPR ON AN ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE The people and the processes are the foundation of any organizations and business process reengineering renovates an organization in ways that directly affect performance. If the individuals are motivated and working hard, than the processes of the businesses are manageable and the nonessential activities remain, the execution of organization will be poor. The key to transforming how people work is business process reengineering, which becomes visible to be minor changes in processes and can have dramatic effects on cash flow, the delivery of the service and the satisfaction of the customer. The best technique to map and improve the organizations procedures is to take a top down approach, and not undertake a project in isolation. Beginning with mission statements, which define and describe the purpose of the organization, what it apart from others in its sector or an industry. Producing vision statements which define where the organization is going, to provide a clear picture of the desired future position. Establish these into a comprehensible business strategy, which derives thereby the objectives of the project.   Defining behaviours, which makes possible for the organization to obtain its goals. Produce the key power measurements to seek out progress. In relationship of the efficiency improvements to the culture of the organization. Identifying initiatives that will improve performance. CONCEPT OF BPR The concept of BPR generally includes the use of computers, information system and Information technology to organize data, project trends, etc. Many large companies are giving high importance to software integration, they want to build strong links between business systems and make information flow better and avoid to access data stored in multiple systems. Let us take an example, suppose a person wants to place an order over the internet. An integrated software solution take that order, shift it and allocate them to the manufacturing plant on one hand and place order for the raw materials on the basis of the stock, update the financial position of the company with respect to suppliers and the inventory on the other hand and so on. Different names have been given by the people to the integration of ERP, SCM, BPR and CRM. These names include e-business, c-business, m-business and KM etc. There are many softwares that do these integration activities. To name a few software these are known as Baan, Fourth Shift, Frida, JD Edwards One World, Manage 2000, Masterpiece MP/Net, Micro strategy, Oracle e-Business Suite, People Soft and SAP R/3. ADVANTAGES OF BPR It locates the customer at the midpoint of the organisation. It helps to reorganize business functions, identify the core activities and processes as well as inefficient or obsolete ones. It helps them to focus on overall corporate objectives and promotes greater staff involvement. It reduces the new product development and process activity times and can condense the response of the customer as well. It can lead to `quantum leap improvements and developments in business resultsif planned and implemented carefully. It can improve the current industry position, an inefficient and reorganize business processes and can make them the industrial leader. DISADVANTAGES OF BPR It is more suited to products and services that involve logical sequences in production. It may be less suitable for highly variable processes. It may require a high level of investment in IT and requires good teamwork and a high degree of planning and implementation expertise. It can be seen as a real threat to jobs. Success is not automatically guaranteed. ROLE OF IS/IT FUNCTION IN BPR Top management must have the full support to BPR to succeed. The leader must be willing to drive change, even to the point of ruthlessness, if resistance is encountered. â€Å"Although, BPR has its roots in IT management, it is primarily a Business Initiative that has broad consequences in terms of satisfying the needs of customers and the firms other constituents†. (Davenport Stoddard 1994) The IS/IT group may need to play a behind-the-scenes advocacy role; convincing senior management of the power offered by IT and process redesign. It would also need to incorporate the skills of process measurement, analysis, and redesign. It is essential to differentiate between information technology (IT) and information systems (IS) to understand the role that information systems play in today’s business environment. IT is the term employed to describe the hardware of computer, the software, and the tools of infrastructure of network in other words, technology itself. IS describes the broader prospect in which IT is employed by the management to create and the systems of support which make it possible for the organization to chase and achieve its strategic goals. When discussing IS, it is important to consider all three of its dimensions: IT, management, and organizations. As a practical matter, it should be noted that the terms IT and IS are often used interchangeably, particularly by those who are not directly involved in the IS or IT field. Information technology is persistent in all the organizations and society as a whole. Businesses are based on IT and telecommunications to achieve their day-to-day goals. In fact, the collection, storage, and retrieval of data and information are both more sophisticated and more ordinary than they have ever been. The information which a company gathers about its procedures of management is a valuable tool of resource for planning.The organizations are able to create and implement new strategies by the innovative use of existing information technologies and systems of information. For example, FedEx upgraded its parcel tracking system to provide the direct access through the website of the shipment information to its customers. This upgrade reduced the cost to provide the service to the customers and simultaneously increased the quality and the availability of the service. This example shows the possibilities of IS while adopting new strategies. IT PROCESSES AND DEVELOPMENT Today, we find a great number of advances in the IT’s has being employed in the companies. In one way, the remarkable advances in personal computers and the communications make it possible to employees to work outside the office while still being always connected to the office. The employees can work of the house or other places. The communication systems of multi-media, which send and receive audio and video signals, help us by making decisions by employing the email, the transfer of file, or the videoconference. The techniques of computer-aided design/manufacture/technology (CAD/CAM/CAE) take account of the design of products, manufacture, and the coordinating activities of technology. By gaining new IT tools, it enables companies to gain important advantages such as: 1) Cost savings, improvement and recovering the accuracy of exchanging information. 2) Avoiding inherent human errors so complex and repetitive tasks are used. 3) Saving money because it reduces errors and the time it takes to accomplish tasks. 4) Integrating and coordinating several functions immediately. 5) Improving the effectiveness and the effectiveness of organization by elimination delay, the administrative intermediaries, and the unessential stages of transformation and by providing a better access to information. The environment of today quickly requires companies to develop and offer the products which will satisfy the needs for customers. The companies cannot be able to do this if they apply processes with many stages and rare collaboration. Consequently, this environment forces a change of the processes of businesses to the mediation reduced by device and increased collaboration. To diminish the degree of mediation and increase the degree of collaboration, Firstly companies must reduce the degree of mediation in processes. That is, they must convert processes with a great number of stages of intermediary of processes which take part directly in the final results. The IT’s that make this modification easy might be: 1)   Shared databases: Different functions are allowed to take part directly by employing information stored in the data bases. Each function can approach, write, or recover the information of this data base the moment when it is necessary. 2) Imaging technology: Several people may work at the same time on a digitalized image of documents or graphics. 3) Electronic data exchange and electronic funds transference. Furthermore, shared computing resources make it possible for different functions to have access to information at any time. Second, the companies must increase the degree of collaboration in the processes so that the implied functions share information. IT that makes the collaboration easy among the different people can be technologies of communication. These allow the transfer of information by using tools such as the email, the videoconference, and the File Transfer Protocol. IMPORTANCE OF IS/IT IN BPR All organizations would like to grow and extend. In order to reach this growth and prosperity, organizations place long-term goals. Their roles as a financial manager are to be helped to develop the organizational strategies which facilitate and obtain those goals. The future growth and prosperity of any organization is essential in an effective management and use of information technology (IT) and information systems (IS). In today’s organizations, the vast majority of the data to support organizational activities and decisions comes from IS, which incorporates IT, data and information, and business procedures. Organizations with poorly designed information systems face numerous problems. Consider the case of the Hershey Foods Corporation, which found it unable to effectively ship candy for the Halloween season following the implementation of a new computer system. The company faced a 19% drop in profitability because of this problem. Yet at the same time, organizations that effectively design and manage their information systems can gain tremendous benefits. A recent study by Jeanne Ross and Peter Weill found that organizations that effectively manage their IT decision making experience financial performance levels about 20% higher than those with less effective IT management. IS/IT should not be used as a cure-all for organizational problems because technology can create as many problems as it solves if it is not understood properly and its applications are not actively managed. The key to developing a good strategy to achieve an organization’s goals is to build well-designed and well-managed systems. CONTRIBUTIONS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM IS contributes to organizational goals when people use data, information, and information technology through a set of procedures. IMPACT OF IS/IT IN AN ORGANIZATION All medium to large organisations depend on information technology (IT) for their continuous survival. Consider organisations like British Gas, British Telecom, the Power and Water companies having to manually calculate, millions of customer bills every month or quarter. Similar opinion applies to many other organisations such as the high street banks, central and local government. A recent article in the Daily Telegraph IT supplement suggested that many large organisations could last no longer than 24 hours without IT support! There should be a little wonder that attitudes to the development of information systems have changed over the years from an ad hoc almost cavalier approach to a professionally managed, disciplined, planned, and engineering approach. IT can prove to be useful during the process of redesign and reengineering analysis. The graphics software and the tools of CASE can produce the charts of process maps, the spreadsheets and the costing software take account of the analysis of the cost activity-based, the data base can track the satisfaction and the complaints of the customers and display boards of E-mail of â€Å"lamp-shade† can be introduced to capture suggestions of the employees. Moreover the E-mail and the groupware can facilitate the communication and coordination through the geographical and organizational barriers. It is recommended that during the process of implementation stage, companies follow these basis rules: Recognize that IT is only part of the solution: it allows managers to collect, store, analyze, and communicate and distribute information better. Cut and paste the IT tools needed. Bring in an internal or external IT expert: their knowledge, skills, intelligence, and experience are invaluable. After implementation, continually monitor IT performance and keep up with new IT developments. Mentioned below are some examples of the companies experience that show the role and implementation of IS/IT in business process redesigning To exhibit the advantages of BPR, Ford Motor was chosen by Hammer [1990]. By applying the data bases shared in the process of accounts payable, which includes the purchase, receiving, and the accounts payable, Ford reduced its labour of the employees by 75 percent. Hewlett-Packard changed the functioning model of its salesmen. Using the portable computers, they were connected to the data base of the inventory of the company. They obtain the information of period on time, activate and apply directly for promotions, changes of the prices, or discounts. Pointless to say, their time devoted to the customers has increased by 27 percent and sales, of 10 percent. When Citibank transformed its system of analysis of credit by reducing paper dispensation, it obtained an increase of 43 percent at time devoted to gather new customers. The credit of IBM took two weeks to finish a claim of financing because there were five stages to the process. By redesigning the process and while making take part the general practitioners who work with data bases and telecommunications networks, it takes now only four hours. LIMITATAIONS TO TECHNOLOGY There are limits to what a technology may accomplish. For example, when the video conferencing technology of communication became the first time available, much were excited about the prospect to employ the visual communication to finish the need for business trip, or reduce-the least substantially it. While there is no question which the visual communication can be employed for some aspects of communication of businesses, it did not finish the need for travel, partly because of the nature slightly limited of the medium and the human desire for the contact head to head. Still another, and really undefeatable, the question which limits the use of the video conferencing communication is physical distance and the notion of the time zones. Consider a situation where a senior executive in Vancouver tries to arrange a video conference with sales offices in Eastern Canada, Europe, and in Asia. Taking account of the time zones, there is no overlapping time of covering during the normal working hours which will allow parts in these four geographical regions to meet. CONCLUSION To be successful, business process reengineering projects need to be top down, taking in the complete organization, and the full end to end processes. It needs to be supported by tools that make processes easy to track and analyze. BPR is a methodology by which important improvements are obtained, although it requires big changes in organization and work style. This involves the need to change or even increase working styles, job functions, needed knowledge, and organization values. Reengineering requires long-time dedication, resources, and effort. These are made easier by using elements called enablers. Its role is crucial because it allows a company to alter processes in two ways: collaboration grade increase and mediation grade decrease through the implementation of shared databases and communication technologies. So, IT may help companies to obtain important improvements on variables such as costs, quality, and delivery time. Although these are not the only important elements, also bear in mind structural changes, company culture, and human resources. RECOMMENDATIONS BPR must be accompanied by strategic planning, which addresses leveraging IT as a competitive tool. Place the customer at the centre of the reengineering effort concentrate on reengineering fragmented processes that lead to delays or other negative impacts on customer service. BPR must be owned throughout the organization, not driven by a group of outside consultants. Case teams must be comprised of both managers as well as those will actually do the work. The IT group should be an integral part of the reengineering team from the start. BPR must be sponsored by top executives, who are not about to leave or retire. BPR projects must have a timetable, ideally between three to six months, so that the organization is not in a state of limbo. BPR must not ignore corporate culture and must emphasize constant communication and feedback. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berman, Saul, Strategic Direction: Dont Reengineer Without It; Scanning the Horizon for Turbulence, Planning Review, November 1994; Pg. 18. Brown, Tom, De-engineering the Corporation, Industry Week, April 18, 1994; Pg. 18. Cafasso, Rosemary, Rethinking Reengineering, Computerworld, March 15, 1993; Pg. 102. Caldwell, Bruce, Missteps, Miscues Business Reengineering Failures, InformationWeek, June 20, 1994; Pg. 50. Chew, Angie, How Insurance Firms Can Reengineer for Success, Business Times, June 20, 1994; Pg. 11. Cone, Edward, Technology Chief of the Year; All the Right Moves Tom Trainer of Reebok International Successfully Teamed Business Reengineering with Information Technology, InformationWeek, December 26, 1994; Pg. 35. Davenport, Thomas H., Will Participative Makeovers of Business Processes Succeed Where Reengineering Failed? Planning Review, January 1995; Pg. 24. Economist Newspaper Group, Reengineering Reviewed The Economist, June 1994, Pg 24. Ettorre, Barbara, Reengineering Tales from the Front, Management Review, January 1995; Pg. 13. REFERENCES http://jobfunctions.bnet.com/abstract.aspx?docid=390451promo=100511tag=bn-left teamtechnology.co.uk/business-process-reengineering.html comp.glam.ac.uk/pages/staff/tdhutchings/chapter1.html#head1 scribd.com/doc/396076/Foundations-of-Information-Systems-in-Business netlib.com/bpr1.shtml#recom entrepreneur.com/tradejournals/article/100012316_2.html kmbook.com/bpr.htm susanto.id.au/papers/BPEASAP.asp