A Theme Of Racism In The Kite Runner - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 438 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/06/14 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: The Kite Runner Essay Did you like this example? Racism is the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics. Racial separatism is the belief, most of the time based on racism, that different races should remain segregated and apart from one another. Racism has existed throughout human history. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Theme Of Racism In The Kite Runner" essay for you Create order It means that the hatred of one person by another or the belief that another person is less than human because of skin color, language, customs, place of birth or another factor that supposedly reveals the basic nature of that person. It has influence wars, slavery, the formation of nation and legal codes. The Amir figure who acts as the main narrator in the story as well as the central figure attempts to disguise repression with a character from the low-ranking social strata of Hazara named Hassan. Amir is a Pashtun boy who lives in luxury and facilities because his father is one of the richest men in their district to live, Wazir Akhbar Khan in Kabul. In his daily life, Amir was always accompanied and served by the son of his servant Ali named Hassan. However, Hassan tried hard to please Amir. In the deep down, Amir never considered Hassan as a friend. Hassan was only a servant for him. The curious thing was, I never thought of Hassan and me as friends either or in another quote: But he’s not my friend! I almost blurted. Its my servant! Had I really thought that? Of course I have no. I treated Hassan well, just like a friend, better even, more like a brother. But if so, then why, when Babas friends came to visit with their kids, did I never include Hassan in our games? Why did I play with Hassan only when no one else was around? The quotation above shows that Amir could never regard Hassan as equal to himself. There will always be differences and distances that Amir and society create. In this novel there is one character that hold grudges and be racial to Hassan, He is Assef. He really hated to Hassan because he throw Assef with slingshot and because Hassan is Hazara people. Here, there is one incident that interested my heart. The incident happened when Hassan chased after Kite’s opponent that broke up. On the road, he met Assef and his friends. Assef asked the kite for himself but Hassan didn’t give it, then Assef rape him in there. From the story above we can conclude that racism asserts that blood is a marker of ethnic-national identity.

What Does Immortality Mean - 822 Words

Sherianna Johnson Dr. Norman J. Fischer Introduction to Philosophy March 2nd, 2017 Can one be immortal? Is it possible to be dead before one is alive? What does immortality mean? These are questions that some people do not think about or discuss on a daily basis. There is much to be learned about one’s immorality. Socrates talks about how the soul of the dead comes from people who are still alive, and we gain ours from the dead. He utilizes this as an inspiration for his first argument. All objects once upon a time came from their opposite states; something larger now should have been tiny before. The two processes for these opposite are increase and decrease . On the off chance that the two opposite procedures did not balance each†¦show more content†¦When people are born into this world, so is a new soul. Where does the soul come from? Socrates verbalizes that even postmortem, the soul subsists and is able to cerebrate. He believed that as bodies decease, the soul is continually reborn in subsequent bodies. Not true for relative opposite, nothing can be both either everything has to be one or the other. Life and death are not conflicting alternate opposites, but they are contrary opposites. Plato appears to be right in setting up the necessary presence of opposites when considering adjectives, e.g. slow and fast, hot and cold, living and dying etc. Here, without a doubt restricting descriptors more often than not oblige one to happen before the other. For a question be moving quicker at a specific time, it more likely than not, been moving slower initial; a protest more likely than not, been littler before it got to be distinctly greater; been dozing before it got to be distinctly wakeful, and so forth. Thus, it is conceivable to attribute a contradictory term to most, if not all, adjectives; it is also conceivable to deem one adjective necessarily happening before another. By definition adjectives qualify nouns[5], e.g. x is fast, y is cold, z is dead, etc., which is to say adjectives describe properties of nouns. In this manner, while considering modifiers in a sentence, if x is moving quickly, y feels frosty, z is dead,Show MoreRelatedHappiness State of Mind1180 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction At first glance, happiness is a state of mind that many, if not all people aspire to achieve in their lifetime. What exactly is that state of mind is up for debate among the east and the west, and varies between different cultures, traditions, and religions. In the west, happiness is mostly associated with success, wealth, fame and power. In the east, happiness can be viewed as freedom from mundane occurrences such as the occupation of western powers from within a country, the end ofRead MorePlatos Symposium : The Nature Of Love1592 Words   |  7 Pagesbe the driving force towards immortality. Aristophanes perpetuates this idea through his allegorical description of human’s original nature, and the component of the driving force of love within that nature. The underlying goal of this force of love is immortality, though he does not directly articulate it in his speech. It is with the emergence of Socrates’ ideas that we are equipped with sufficient evidence reinforcin g Aristophanes’ story to be one in which immortality is the end goal, and that weRead MoreDiscussion of D.Z. Phillips Conception of Immortality Essay1087 Words   |  5 PagesDiscussion of D.Z. Phillips Conception of Immortality In his book Death and Immortality, D Z Phillips starts by asking the question: does belief in immortality rest on a mistake? The first two chapters are negative in the sense that they examine traditional philosophical, as well as common sense, conceptions of what immortality means. Phillips argues that philosophical analyses centred on the notion of immortality have generally been constructed around certain essentialRead MorePlato: Immortality of the Soul1505 Words   |  7 PagesPHAEDO: IMMORTALITY OF SOUL In the dialogue Phaedo Plato discusses the immortality of the soul. He presents four different arguments to prove the fact that although the body of the human perishes after death; the soul still exists and remains eternal. Firstly, he explains the Argument from Opposites that is about the forms and their existence in opposite forms. His second argument is Theory of Recollection which assumes that each and every information that one has in his/her mind is related toRead MoreThe Epic of Gilgamesh Essay1139 Words   |  5 Pagesthe epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh embarks upon a quest seeking immortality as a means to peace, meaning, and joy in life. He tries to reach it in many different ways, each as unsuccessful as its predecessor. The two main types of immortality are physical and through the actions or achievements of ones life. Gilgamesh tries first through his actions, but then undergoes a transformation which leads him to next attempt physical immortality. He eventually comes bac k to the point at which he began; howeverRead MoreThe True Meaning Of Life1370 Words   |  6 Pageswill no longer exist – the worst thing that could perhaps happen to us, our will. This is the true meaning of what is means to be mortal. So, it is fully logical to see why some would want to live forever, to become immortal. For instance, on one side of a spectrum, there is the non-human animals, which possess the same will as humans but do not possess the knowledge of death. This means, that since they are not aware of death, they are then immortal. Another example, on the other side of the spectrumRead MoreOryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood1014 Words   |  4 Pagesdebatable issue in our current society. In the science fiction novel Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood, the author as put by Jayne Glover in critical analysis â€Å"Human/Nature: Ecological Philosophy in Margaret Atwood’s Oryx and Crake†, Atwood â€Å"speculates on what the near future may be like considering the realities of contemporary environmental, social and political issues† (Glover 50). Atwood’s novel specifically focuses on the question: when will the line be drawn? She emphasizes dystopian ideals by paintingRead MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And The Book Of Job Essay1191 Words   |  5 Pages Human problems does not change throughout history but instead get told in different forms. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Book of Job are a quest for immortality and deal with the realization that death is final and will come for everyone. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Book of Job have a similar main theme of immortality and context, but the Book of Job has a more optimistic and friendly world view. These two stories are very similar in their context because they occur close together in historyRead MoreSymbolism in Emily Dickinson’s Poetry918 Words   |  4 Pagesbe able to see Dickinson’s poems, she uses symbolism of immortality, death, sorrow and personification throughout the three poems that I will be discussing in the following paragraphs. She describes each meaning to only symbolize one thing and without reading the whole poem one would not be able to notice this. But, I will attempt to persuade and explain why I feel that in Dickinson’s poems 465, 585 and 712 has a slight focus on immortality, but in the same instance if you would not have read theRead MoreVictory over Death in Wordsworth ¡Ã‚ ¯S  ¡Ã‚ °Intimations of Immortality Ode ¡Ã‚ ±1670 Words   |  7 PagesThe concept of death most frequently conveys the dark and mysterious affect. 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David Foster Wallace’s essay Consider the Lobster Example For Students

David Foster Wallace’s essay Consider the Lobster The gluttonous lords of the land capture those who are unable to defend themselves, boil the captives alive, and then feast on their flesh. Could this be the plot of some new summer blockbuster? It could be, in fact, but for now we will focus on how this depiction of events compares to David Foster Wallace’s essay, â€Å"Consider the Lobster,† which starts as a review of the Maine Lobster Festival, but soon morphs into an indictment of not only the conventions of lobster preparation, but also the entire idea of having an animal killed for one’s own consumption. Wallace shows great skill in establishing ethos. In the essay, he succeeds in snaring a receptive audience by laying out a well-baited trap for an audience who was looking for something else altogether, but he ultimately fails to keep hold of much of his catch. The piece in question was written for and published in Gourmet magazine. Presumably, the readers of that publication have already made up their minds about what they like to eat. A philosophical treatise on animal rights is probably not high on their reading list. In order to suck these readers in, Wallace hides his disdain for the subject matter inside cynical and ironic language. In his opening sentence, Wallace refers to the Maine Lobster Festival as â€Å"enormous, pungent, and extremely well-marketed† (252). This is an effective turn of phrase in that each reader assigns his or her own values to those adjectives. While an optimist sees in his mind’s eye a large, aromatic party filled with revelers from all over the continent, a pessimist pictures a crowded, stinky mess which has sold out for the money. Wallace draws them both in with his careful use of language. The words â€Å"optimist† and â€Å"pessimist† need further exploration. In the above example, they represent the two aspects of Wallace’s audience. Unfortunately, the words themselves are not a perfect fit for the duality of the readership. For our purposes, we will say that most of the Gourmet readers are probably in the â€Å"optimist† crowd, but they are also the omnivores typical of the Standard American Diet: they will eat anything so long as it is expertly prepared and tasty. The â€Å"pessimists† are the segment of Wallace’s readership who are actually most receptive to his arguments. The reasons behind any particular reader’s membership in this group are numerous: the reader may be a vegetarian, or opposed to the typical method of lobster preparation, or may just be opposed to commercial fishing and/or commercialized food festivals. The specific reasons are not important; what is important is that Wallace does not have to figh t to keep this audience: he just has to keep from alienating them. It is the optimists for whom he must fight. Wallace must tread a careful path in the opening four pages of his article. In this stage, if his language is too negative, he will lose the optimist majority, but if he caters to that portion of his audience too heavily, he will lose those whom he is most likely to reach. In the second paragraph, he continues to use neutral language and allow the readers to bring their own opinions into the article. He combines negative and positive language in a single sentence when he describes the Maine Lobster Festival as â€Å"less an intersection of industries than a deliberate collision, joyful and lucrative and loud† (252). Our optimistic readers gloss over the collision and focus on the joy, profits, and revelry. The pessimists find plenty of words to latch onto: â€Å"collision† implies a negative event, what is â€Å"loud† is often annoying, and even the mention of how profitable the event is will again fill our pessimists with feelings of capitalist exploitation. .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .postImageUrl , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:hover , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:visited , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:active { border:0!important; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:active , .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub427b0e26100daa19f516b53d17cf33e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Martha Washington EssayFarther along, Wallace has spent some time comparing lobsters to various insects and spiders an referred to them as â€Å"giant sea insects† (254). He then follows this up by saying that â€Å"they aregood eating. Or so we think now† (254). He follows this up with a discussion of how the lobster was originally a cheap food for the poor and that there were even laws to protect prisoners from being fed lobster too often. Again, importantly, he refrains from passing judgment on either the old perspective or the new. It is left up to the reader to decide if the people of old were silly for failing to properly value lobster meat or if the mo dern lobster eaters are silly for not realizing that they are eating such a common food. It is shortly after this point that the essay begins to change in tone. Having hopefully won the trust of the optimists, or at least not scared them away yet, Wallace slowly moves into a more negative approach. He does this cautiously. First he makes an assumption about the typical Gourmet reader: that he or she does not want to sit with the common folk and simply eat food. On the fourth, fifth and sixth pages of his essay, he launches a two-pronged attack on the Maine Lobster Festival. In the main text, he vividly describes the sights and smells of the overcrowded Main Eating Tent, where â€Å"it’s hot, and†¦the smells†¦are strong and only partly food-related† (255). Also: â€Å"The suppers come in Styrofoam trays†¦and the utensils are plastic† (255). Then he describes the Festival as â€Å"a midlevel county fair† (256). In his massive footnote spread across two pages, he attacks the practice of being, as he calls it, â€Å"a mass touristà ¢â‚¬  (257). Herein he gives the reader an honest view of his opinion on the subject of his piece, and it is not a favorable one. He is striving to win over the â€Å"optimist† Gourmet audience by showing them that there are better ways to enjoy lobster than the Maine Lobster Fest, and he does it very successfully by making accurate assumptions about their tastes. Shortly after his victory at bringing the reluctant part of audience to his side, however, he tries to build upon that by launching into a philosophical discussion which undermines the trust he has won. His question: â€Å"Is it all right to boil a sentient creature alive just for our gustatory pleasure?† (259). Here his precise use of the word â€Å"sentient† feels out of place. He has given up his careful word usage in favor of an easily misinterpreted one which is often associated with intelligent life. Within a paragraph, he is bringing up PETA, whom he later describes as â€Å"fanatics† in the footnote on page 263. Unfortunately for his credibility, he does not distance himself from the rhetoric of the animal rights movement early enough. The typical American eater has a lifetime of meat consumption in his or her past and needs to be eased into any discussion that implies there might be a moral price for all those dead animals. It’s arguable that even a 19-page article does not have the time and space to establish enough ethos to win over a large amount of the audience. It is important to note that Wallace acknowledges this fact in his piece, saying â€Å"it appears to me unlikely that many readers of Gourmet wish to think hard about†¦the morality of their eating habits† (262) Wallace knows that he is fishing in unfriendly waters. He knows his harvest will not be nearly as impressive as the lobstermen he lambasts. Some would say this concession to reality shows that he has lowered (or realistic) expectations, and therefore he should be excused if his essay only sways a few members of his audience. I disagree: by offering his readership the â€Å"out† of peer pressure, he gives them an easy, popular excuse to be unconcerned with the lobster. This moment of weakness allows the readers to break free of the language net he has expertly woven. They hasten back to their old schools of thought, safe amongst the multitude of omnivores. .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .postImageUrl , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:hover , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:visited , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:active { border:0!important; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:active , .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000 .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf5c31c3f5bfa3de5b1f3023818ab5000:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Why do men resort to domestic violence EssayBy the time we reach the end of the piece, Wallace is doing a decent impression of a PETA â€Å"fanatic.† He begins to use the language of guilt to desperately try to sway some last few readers to his side. Vivid descriptions of lobsters thrashing around in their boiling pots and knives being thrust into crustacean heads are peppered through a text that finally wraps up by challenging Gourmet magazine’s slogan, â€Å"The Magazine of Good Living.† He brings it up almost in passing. The deep, interesting questions available to him are left unasked, such as whether â€Å"good† living consists of those thi ngs which make one feel special and privileged or whether it means taking the time to appreciate the consequences of one’s own individual choices instead of just going along with the crowd. Is ordering an animal killed for your enjoyment a self-centered act of gluttonous excess or just a decent way to get dinner? Wallace backs away by saying that â€Å"these questions lead straightaway into such deep and treacherous waters that it’s probably best to stop the public discussion right here† (270). His own willingness to stop before broaching this point gives his readers the freedom to do so as well. In the end, Wallace’s inability to set up enough ethos to bring the reluctant portion of his audience along on his exploration of animal-rights issues causes this to be an ineffective piece. The only readers who are interested in its points are those who already agree with them. The vast majority of readers will either tune him out once he starts using more negative and eventually desperate language, or they will get through the piece and then go have some dead animal prepared for their supper without a second thought. He skillfully guides the audience into his net through his early use of neutral language, but when he tries to draw in his catch he ends up opening a giant hole in his netting, allowing many to follow their peers back into the murky sea from whence they came. Sources Cited David Foster Wallace’s essay, â€Å"Consider the Lobster,† in Gourmet Magazine. June 2008.

Normative Development free essay sample

It indicates a typical range of what can be expected at a given time. These are generally referred to as developmental milestones to indicate steps in certain abilities that should be reflected at different ages, as determined by supporting research. In this way, normative development is important because it allows us to understand what to expect at different ages (Sigelman and Rider, 2006). The works of different theoretical viewpoints will be examined, each with differing perspectives on the nature of human development. The degree of variability between these theories brings into question the viability of normative development. The changes and continuities of human development are examined across three broad areas. These are the physical growth of the body, organs and motor skills; the cognitive abilities such as language, perception and memory; and the psychosocial development, which includes social interactions, personality traits and identity (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Human growth, development and aging are guided by a unique genetic program, set into action by the brain and hormones released by the endocrine system. We will write a custom essay sample on Normative Development or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Areas of physical development include brain development, locomotor skills and sensory capabilities. including perception. Developmental phases studied across the lifespan are the infant, from birth to two years, the child from approximately three to twelve years, the adolescent of twelve to eighteen years and finally the adult; young, middle, and elderly. The endocrine system, together with the nervous system, is fundamental to growth during childhood, sexual and physical maturation of the adolescent, performance and aging over the lifespan (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory is still widely influential today and remains directly relevant to contemporary theories on child development. Piaget proposed that all children progress through four universal, stage-like phases, and believed development was predominantly biological-based although he did recognize environmental-learned experience. He considered humans to be adaptive and active in their cognitive development, and to construct new understandings through their explorations. These developments are qualitative and replace former strategies at each new stage (Sigelman Rider, 2006). By arguing these stages were similar and common to all children, Piaget espoused normative development. Piaget’s first stage, from birth to two years, is the sensorimotor period. Infants explore and discover their world using their innate senses and motor skills, solving problems through experimenting. By constructing organized patterns of thought and action schemes they are able to make sense of their world. As children’s knowledge and experiences change, these schemes adapt and change as a result of the ensuing mental conflict and the interpretation of new information. According to Piaget, they learn to construct mental symbols, leading to more purposeful thought and early language, such as babbling and cooing (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Infancy is a time when most fundamental capacities emerge and develop and on which the rest of the lifespan is determined, so it is a crucial period. Babies are born with reflexes, sensory and perceptual capabilities and are able to learn through their experiences. Motor skills are closely connected to perceptual-cognitive developments. Newborns are checked for normal physical development using the Agpar test for heart, colour, reflex, muscle and respiratory (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The critical period for brain development is during late pregnancy and early infancy. Although normal genes roughly determine normal functioning, early xperiences establish the brain’s patterning. Research has shown that babies born into lower socio-economic environments and institutions are at a disadvantage. This is possibly due to poor maternal nutrition, lack of healthcare and advice, and lack of a stimulating environment. Physical and emotional conditions surrounding the pregnant and early inf ant environment can determine and influence whether a baby develops within the developmental norm. Environmental hazards such as pollutants, and exposure to drugs and alcohol can have adverse affects on development that impact across the lifespan. Risks include low birth weight, mental retardation and congenital abnormalities, such as spina bifida and Down syndrome (Sigelman Rider, 2006). There are also sensitive periods within early infancy in which normal vision, perception, hearing and language development can be compromised. Abnormalities can have profound affects on the development of close family members too (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Clearly, considering the complex clinical reality of infant development and factors that cannot be predetermined, Piaget’s theory is too restrictive. Infants and children most likely to experience stable normative development benefit most from a stimulating loving home environment. In his Attachment Theory, psychiatrist John Bowlby argued that humans are biologically disposed to forming close affection ties and behavioral systems that help us normalize our emotions. A secure early attachment to our primary caregiver has been shown to have a positive impact on an individual’s social development and the quality of attachment during infancy can influence the quality of relationships across each subsequent developmental period. Those infants and children, who never form a stable attachment bond through circumstances such as parental absence, are more likely to suffer relationship issues throughout the lifespan. Early emotional strain can raise stress hormone levels in infants and this can impact on their neural development. Evidence shows social relationships affect health and wellbeing, so dysfunction has a direct impact on our development (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Psychologist Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory stresses the role our social interactions have on our development. Bandura believed that by observing other people we construct and memorise mental symbols, which we later use to direct our behaviour. He emphasized the importance of active information processing in behavioural and learning development. By observing the potential consequences of others actions, learners will then decide whether to imitate (Bandura, 2001). This can account in part for language progression. By listening to talking, infants begin to process words. They then imitate other people’s speech, and if this behaviour has favourable consequences, they are more likely to have advanced early language development (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Infants with older siblings also show superior word comprehension, signifying the influence of the social-interaction element (Fletcher-Flinn McCormack, 2000). The core feature of Bandura’s theory is that â€Å"people play a part in their self-development, adaption, and self-renewal with changing times† (Bandura, 2001, p2). Self-efficacy, the belief that one can successfully create a desired outcome, ultimately affects what courses of action people choose, and so affect development. In this way, development is context specific, multi-directional and can differ at all ages. He rejects the notion of universality and believes developmental change occurs gradually and continuously (Sigelman Rider, 2006). In Piaget’s theory, pre-school children aged two to seven, are in the pre-operational stage. Children’s physical growth is steady and they master more advanced motor skills as their muscles strengthen and their agility improves. Their symbolic capacity flourishes as they play and develop language. Creativity rises but appears to lessen at the advent of school. They are unable to think logically and view the world egocentrically. They become more aware of gender and develop early theory of mind, beginning to understand people have different mental states that cause certain behaviours. Dependent on a normal brain, this ability to understand others and adopt their perspective generally leads to better social integration. Piaget believed it is through the interaction with their peers, not adults, that children advance their cognitive development. This appears true for children’s social cognition too, with evidence showing children with siblings have a higher developed theory of mind (Sigelman Rider, 2006). In contrast to Piaget, the Russian psychologist Les Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective emphasizes the role of culture and society in cognitive development. Children learn through interaction with a skilled helper and in response to cultural influences. Language is a key learning tool the child internalizes into personal thought processes, problem solving and language development. As statistics show, in children less than three years, large differences in vocabulary are apparent due to quantity and quality of language they are exposed to. Unlike Piaget who believed guided training does not increase development, Vygotsky’s perspective relies on the premise that children learn and advance through teaching. Evidence of special preschool education services for disadvantaged children shows better performance in cognitive and social skills, suggesting that children can improve their skills if given a stimulating learning environment (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The Bayley Scales test normal mental, motor and behaviour development of infants and are thus a diagnostic tool for neurological problems. Children who suffer autism have trouble developing theory-of-mind, empathy for others and experience socialising problems (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Their development and that of their families will deviate from the expected norms. The rapid growth of electronic technology we are experiencing in the 21st Century will surely advance children’s early cognitive abilities in ways not studied by Piaget and raises doubts as to what we can define as normative today (Bandura, 2001). In Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, children ages seven to eleven begin to reason logically and deductively, thereby improving memory skills and problem solving. Their knowledge base and ability to process information increases. Piaget stated that these cognitive developments are qualitative and occur almost abruptly with each stage, whereas information-processing theorist Robert Siegler argues that these changes occur gradually and variably over time. His â€Å"overlapping waves theory† suggests children adapt and select their strategies to tasks as needed (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p230). Piaget proposed children develop a â€Å"heteronomous morality†, believing in the sacredness of rules, with little consideration of intentions (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p328). More recent findings suggest children are able to differentiate between rules and their level of social cognition is more sophisticated then Piaget expected (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The issue of good nutrition is still crucial to normal development and those children from low socio-economic households are shown to be disadvantaged (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Obesity and the associated disease type 2 diabetes are becoming more prevalent and are one of the biggest health challenges facing western developed nations. Traditionally considered a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel to rising obesity rates. Another by-product of 21st Century living, the epidemic raises questions as to what constitutes a normative physical development (Australian Institute of Health Welfare). In Piaget’s formal-operations stage, from approximately twelve years onwards, adolescents’ cognitive abilities improve as the brain increases, with the beginning of abstract and hypothetical thought, and increased attention span. During adolescence, strong bonds with peers are formed and many experience with intimate relationships. They develop more advanced social perspective-taking capacities, entering what Piaget termed the â€Å"Autonomous morality† stage, where they start to take into account others intentions and view rules as changeable contracts (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p383). In his social cognitive perspective, Bandura stresses that our moral cognition is tied to our moral behaviour. This behaviour is learned through observation, and is reinforced by the consequences of our behaviour. It is monitored internally by our individual standards of morality. So if we have not internalised strong moral standards, we are more likely to become involved in immoral behaviour. Personality traits and resulting behaviours alter and adapt according to specific social environments. Adolescent’s ability to think more independently can also lead to greater confusion and rebellion. This is particularly evident in adolescent’s often reckless conduct and risk taking that can have huge implications on their future development (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Adding to the internal confusion is the dramatic physical changes that occur. A surge in growth hormones creates a growth spurt and muscles develop rapidly. Both sexes experience sexual maturation, or puberty. The psychological effects of puberty are significant as teenagers grapple with their sexual changes and increased levels of hormones. Adolescents often become preoccupied with body image and how they are perceived and a period of internal conflict and self-identity emerges. Evidence also indicates the age at which adolescents experience puberty has a significant affect on all aspects of their development, including sense of identity, academic performance and social confidence. Levels of cognitive development, home and cultural environment and scope for opportunities create a diverse range of experiences and differing developmental results (Sigelman Rider, 2006). Research has shown that some adults do not reach or use Piaget’s final stage, formal-operational thought, especially in remote rural cultures where social experiences are limited. There is also evidence that people swing between Piaget’s later stages depending on the social and environmental context (Sigelman Rider, 2006). This questions Piaget’s assertion of universality and discontinuity. Although Piaget suggested that cognitive development was mastered by age eighteen, research indicates some adults reach another level, known as postformal thought. The qualitative difference is relativistic thinking, that is, â€Å"†¦ understanding that knowledge depends on the subjective perspective of the knower† (Sigelman Rider, 2006, p 206). In young and middle adulthood, cognitive abilities strengthen and intelligence stabilizes. In later adulthood, some mental and physical capabilities slowly start to weaken. The decline in neural functioning affects cognition and perception, with the most universal changes in capacities being visual and auditory. However self-esteem and identity seem to remain stable. As we age, disease and physical ailments increase although good nutrition and keeping physically active contribute to healthy development. Keeping mentally alert and socially active can also slow down declines in cognition. Deterioration of the nervous system occurs leading to degrees in memory loss, and often alzheimers. There are considerable differences in aged development, while many older adults remain alert and active across most of the lifespan, others contract debilitating diseases (Sigelman Rider, 2006). An expected normative development, then, appears problematic. Universal stage theories, such as Piaget’s, have been formulated within specific social contexts and value systems. A normal developmental milestone expected in one culture may not be valued or relevant in another. These developmental norms are also influenced by factors such as the group studied, culture and generation and so conceal wide variations among the subjects. Criticisms of many studies include a cultural and gender-bias, and a lack of consideration for the relevant historical and social contexts (Sigelman Rider, 2006). While Piaget has been hugely influential in furthering understanding cognitive development, particularly in children, and there may be some degrees of universal growth, such theories fail to factor in our unique experiences, the dynamics of change and the significant individual variabilities to these norms as evident in our world. As German psychologist Paul Baltes (1980) successfully argues, developmental-processes can occur at any age in life and are influenced by historical, biological, sociocultural and unexpected life events that can account for substantial individual variation. Bandura’s social cognitive theory takes into account this complex interplay of individual biological potentialities, different psychosocial influences and the adaptive modes of behaviour people adopt to shape their development (Bandura 2001). People are proactive and â€Å"†¦bring their influence to bear on how they live their lives† (Bandura, 2001, p13). Today, with the advance of genetic research and a more sophisticated understanding of human development, the focus of development now lies in the fluctuating balance of gene-environment interaction (Sigelman Rider, 2006). The study of identical and non-identical twins has advanced scientists’ findings. By studying twins reared together and apart, scientists are able to better estimate the degree to which heredity and environment contribute to an individual’s makeup (Wright, 1997, p1). So although it will always be problematic establishing beyond a doubt the exact degree of influence, the sheer scale of contributing and conflicting factors that shape our development means there will remain ambiguity concerning normative development. â€Å"Assuming that the infant has normal opportunities to explore and experience the world, the result will be a normal brain and normal development† (Sigelman, 2006, p155). The degree to which this can be true depends greatly on seemingly immeasurable, complex and changing conditions. At best, by attempting to define normative development, theorists offer guidelines that aid us in understanding the many developmental possibilities and alert us to the vast differences in human development. But the different sources of influence such as genetics, nutrition, rearing, social class, temperament, ethnicity and culture that determine our development are too diverse and complex to allow for a truly predictable normative development.